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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  21
  22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  23
  24
  25class _Generator(type):
  26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  28
  29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  32
  33        return klass
  34
  35
  36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  37    """
  38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  39
  40    Args:
  41        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  42            Default: False.
  43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  45            True or 'always': Always quote.
  46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  47        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  48            Default: False.
  49        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  50            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  51            Default: 2.
  52        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  53            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  54            Default: 2.
  55        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  56            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  57            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  58            False: Disables function name normalization.
  59        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  60            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  61        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  62            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  63            Default: 3
  64        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  65            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  66            Default: False
  67        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  68            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  69            line length.
  70            Default: 80
  71        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  72            Default: True
  73    """
  74
  75    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  76        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  77        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
  78        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
  79        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  82        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  83        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  85        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  87        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  88        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  92        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
  95        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
  96        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  97        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  98        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  99        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 100        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 101        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 102        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 103        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 104        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 105        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 106        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 107        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 108        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 109        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 110        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 111        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 112        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 113        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 114        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 115        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 116        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 117        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 118        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 119        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 120        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 122        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 126        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 128        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 130            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 131        ),
 132        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 133        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 134        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 135        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 136        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 137        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 138        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 139        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 140        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 141        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 142        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 143        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 144        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 145        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 146        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 147        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 150        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 151        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 152        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 153        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 154        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 155        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 156        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 157        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 158        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 159        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 160    }
 161
 162    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 163    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 164    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 165
 166    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 167    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 168    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 169
 170    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 171    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 172
 173    # Always do <set op> distinct or <set op> all
 174    EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
 175
 176    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 177    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 178
 179    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 180    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 181
 182    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 183    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 184
 185    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 186    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 187
 188    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 189    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 190
 191    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 192    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 193
 194    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 195    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 196
 197    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 198    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 199
 200    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 201    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 202
 203    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 204    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 205
 206    # Whether join hints should be generated
 207    JOIN_HINTS = True
 208
 209    # Whether table hints should be generated
 210    TABLE_HINTS = True
 211
 212    # Whether query hints should be generated
 213    QUERY_HINTS = True
 214
 215    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 216    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 217
 218    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 219    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 220
 221    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 222    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 223
 224    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 225    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 226
 227    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 228    RETURNING_END = True
 229
 230    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 231    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 232
 233    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 234    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 235
 236    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 237    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 238
 239    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 240    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 241
 242    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 243    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 244    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 245    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 246
 247    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 248    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 249
 250    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 251    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 252
 253    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 254    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 255
 256    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 257    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 258
 259    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 260    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 261
 262    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 263    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 264
 265    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 266    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 267
 268    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 269    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 270
 271    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 272    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 273
 274    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 275    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 276
 277    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 278    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 279
 280    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 281    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 282
 283    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 284    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 285
 286    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 287    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 288
 289    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 290    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 291
 292    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 293    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 294
 295    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 296    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 297
 298    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 299    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 300
 301    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 302    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 303
 304    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 305    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 306
 307    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 308    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 309
 310    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 311    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 312
 313    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 314    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 315
 316    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 317    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 318
 319    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 320    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 321
 322    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 323    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 324    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 325
 326    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 327    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 328
 329    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 330    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 331
 332    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 333    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 334
 335    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 336    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 337
 338    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 339    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 340
 341    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 342    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 343
 344    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 345    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 346    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 347    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 348
 349    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 350    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 351
 352    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 353    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 354
 355    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 356    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 357
 358    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 359    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 360
 361    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 362    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 363
 364    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 365    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 366
 367    # The HEX function name
 368    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 369
 370    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 371    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 372
 373    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 374    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 375
 376    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 377    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 378
 379    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 380    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 381
 382    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 383    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 384
 385    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 386    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 387
 388    # Whether nullable types can be constructed, e.g. `Nullable(Int64)`
 389    SUPPORTS_NULLABLE_TYPES = True
 390
 391    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 392    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 393
 394    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 395        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 396        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 397        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 398        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 399        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 400        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 401        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 402        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 403        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 404        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 405    }
 406
 407    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 408        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 409        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 410        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 411        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 412        "DAYS": "DAY",
 413        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 414        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 415        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 416        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 417    }
 418
 419    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 420        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 421        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 422        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 423        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 424            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 425            if e.args.get("windows")
 426            else ""
 427        ),
 428        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 429    }
 430
 431    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 432
 433    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 434
 435    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 436    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 437
 438    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 439        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 440        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 441        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 442        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 443        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 444        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 445        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 447        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 448        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 449        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 451        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 452        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 453        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 454        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 455        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 456        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 457        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 458        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 459        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 460        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 461        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 462        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 463        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 464        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 465        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 466        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 467        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 468        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 469        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 470        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 471        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 472        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 473        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 474        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 475        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 476        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 477        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 478        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 479        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 480        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 481        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 482        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 483        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 484        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 485        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 486        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 487        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 488        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 489        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 490        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 491        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 492        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 493        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 494        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 495        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 496        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 497        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 498        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 499        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 500        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 501        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 502        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 503        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 504        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 505        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 506        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 507        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 508        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 509        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 510        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 511        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 512        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 513        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 514        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 515        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 516        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 517        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 518        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 519        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 520        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 521        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 522        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 523    }
 524
 525    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 526    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 527
 528    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 529    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 530        exp.Command,
 531        exp.Create,
 532        exp.Delete,
 533        exp.Drop,
 534        exp.From,
 535        exp.Insert,
 536        exp.Join,
 537        exp.Select,
 538        exp.SetOperation,
 539        exp.Update,
 540        exp.Where,
 541        exp.With,
 542    )
 543
 544    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 545    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 546        exp.Binary,
 547        exp.SetOperation,
 548    )
 549
 550    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 551    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 552        exp.Column,
 553        exp.Literal,
 554        exp.Neg,
 555        exp.Paren,
 556    )
 557
 558    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 559        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 560        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 561        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 562        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 563    }
 564
 565    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 566    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 567
 568    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 569
 570    __slots__ = (
 571        "pretty",
 572        "identify",
 573        "normalize",
 574        "pad",
 575        "_indent",
 576        "normalize_functions",
 577        "unsupported_level",
 578        "max_unsupported",
 579        "leading_comma",
 580        "max_text_width",
 581        "comments",
 582        "dialect",
 583        "unsupported_messages",
 584        "_escaped_quote_end",
 585        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 586        "_next_name",
 587    )
 588
 589    def __init__(
 590        self,
 591        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 592        identify: str | bool = False,
 593        normalize: bool = False,
 594        pad: int = 2,
 595        indent: int = 2,
 596        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 597        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 598        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 599        leading_comma: bool = False,
 600        max_text_width: int = 80,
 601        comments: bool = True,
 602        dialect: DialectType = None,
 603    ):
 604        import sqlglot
 605        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 606
 607        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 608        self.identify = identify
 609        self.normalize = normalize
 610        self.pad = pad
 611        self._indent = indent
 612        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 613        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 614        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 615        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 616        self.comments = comments
 617        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 618
 619        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 620        self.normalize_functions = (
 621            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 622        )
 623
 624        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 625        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 626            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 627        )
 628        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 629            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 630        )
 631
 632        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 633
 634    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 635        """
 636        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 637
 638        Args:
 639            expression: The syntax tree.
 640            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 641                it is safer to copy.
 642
 643        Returns:
 644            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 645        """
 646        if copy:
 647            expression = expression.copy()
 648
 649        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 650
 651        self.unsupported_messages = []
 652        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 653
 654        if self.pretty:
 655            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 656
 657        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 658            return sql
 659
 660        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 661            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 662                logger.warning(msg)
 663        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 664            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 665
 666        return sql
 667
 668    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 669        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 670        if (
 671            not expression.parent
 672            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 673            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 674        ):
 675            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 676
 677            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 678
 679        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 680            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 681
 682            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 683
 684        return expression
 685
 686    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 687        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 688            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 689        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 690
 691    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 692        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 693
 694    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 695        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 696
 697    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 698        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 699        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 700        return comment
 701
 702    def maybe_comment(
 703        self,
 704        sql: str,
 705        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 706        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 707        separated: bool = False,
 708    ) -> str:
 709        comments = (
 710            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 711            if self.comments
 712            else None
 713        )
 714
 715        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 716            return sql
 717
 718        comments_sql = " ".join(
 719            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 720        )
 721
 722        if not comments_sql:
 723            return sql
 724
 725        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 726
 727        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 728            return (
 729                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 730                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 731                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 732            )
 733
 734        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 735
 736    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 737        this_sql = (
 738            self.sql(expression)
 739            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 740            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 741        )
 742        if not this_sql:
 743            return "()"
 744
 745        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 746        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 747
 748    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 749        original = self.identify
 750        self.identify = False
 751        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 752        self.identify = original
 753        return result
 754
 755    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 756        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 757            return name.upper()
 758        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 759            return name.lower()
 760        return name
 761
 762    def indent(
 763        self,
 764        sql: str,
 765        level: int = 0,
 766        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 767        skip_first: bool = False,
 768        skip_last: bool = False,
 769    ) -> str:
 770        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 771            return sql
 772
 773        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 774        lines = sql.split("\n")
 775
 776        return "\n".join(
 777            (
 778                line
 779                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 780                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 781            )
 782            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 783        )
 784
 785    def sql(
 786        self,
 787        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 788        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 789        comment: bool = True,
 790    ) -> str:
 791        if not expression:
 792            return ""
 793
 794        if isinstance(expression, str):
 795            return expression
 796
 797        if key:
 798            value = expression.args.get(key)
 799            if value:
 800                return self.sql(value)
 801            return ""
 802
 803        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 804
 805        if callable(transform):
 806            sql = transform(self, expression)
 807        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 808            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 809
 810            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 811                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 812            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 813                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 814            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 815                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 816            else:
 817                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 818        else:
 819            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 820
 821        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 822
 823    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 824        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 825        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 826        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 827
 828    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 829        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 830        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 831        options = expression.args.get("options")
 832        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 833        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 834        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 835        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 836        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 837
 838    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 839        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 840            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 841        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 842        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 843
 844    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 845        return ".".join(
 846            self.sql(part)
 847            for part in (
 848                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 849                expression.args.get("db"),
 850                expression.args.get("table"),
 851                expression.args.get("this"),
 852            )
 853            if part
 854        )
 855
 856    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 857        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 858
 859        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 860            join_mark = ""
 861            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 862
 863        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 864
 865    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 866        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 867        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 868        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 869        return f"{position}{this}"
 870
 871    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 872        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 873        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 874        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 875        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 876        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 877        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 878        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 879        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 880
 881        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 882            kind = ""
 883
 884        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 885
 886    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 887        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 888        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 889        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 890
 891    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 892        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 893        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 894            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 895        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 896            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 897        else:
 898            persisted = ""
 899        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 900
 901    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 902        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 903
 904    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 905        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 906            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 907        else:
 908            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 909
 910        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 911
 912    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 913        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 914    ) -> str:
 915        this = ""
 916        if expression.this is not None:
 917            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 918            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 919
 920        start = expression.args.get("start")
 921        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 922        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 923        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 924        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 925        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 926        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 927        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 928        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 929        cycle_sql = ""
 930
 931        if cycle is not None:
 932            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 933            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 934
 935        sequence_opts = ""
 936        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 937            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 938            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 939
 940        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 941        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 942
 943        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 944
 945    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 946        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 947    ) -> str:
 948        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 949        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 950        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 951
 952    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 953        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 954    ) -> str:
 955        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 956
 957    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 958        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 959
 960    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 961        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 962
 963    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 964        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 965        if desc is not None:
 966            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 967        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 968
 969    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 970        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 971        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 972        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 973        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 974        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 975        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 976        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
 977        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 978
 979    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 980        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 981
 982    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 983        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 984        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
 985        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 986        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 987
 988        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 989
 990        properties_sql = ""
 991        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 992            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 993        ):
 994            properties_sql = self.sql(
 995                exp.Properties(
 996                    expressions=[
 997                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 998                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 999                    ]
1000                )
1001            )
1002
1003            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1004                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1005            elif not self.pretty:
1006                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1007                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1008
1009        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1010        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1011
1012        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1013        if expression_sql:
1014            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1015
1016            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1017                postalias_props_sql = ""
1018                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1019                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1020                        exp.Properties(
1021                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1022                        ),
1023                        wrapped=False,
1024                    )
1025                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1026                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1027
1028        postindex_props_sql = ""
1029        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1030            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1031                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1032                wrapped=False,
1033                prefix=" ",
1034            )
1035
1036        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1037        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1038        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1039
1040        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1041        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1042        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1043
1044        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1045        if clustered is None:
1046            clustered_sql = ""
1047        elif clustered:
1048            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1049        else:
1050            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1051
1052        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1053        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1054            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1055                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1056                sep=" ",
1057                prefix=" ",
1058                wrapped=False,
1059            )
1060
1061        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1062
1063        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1064        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1065            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1066                exp.Properties(
1067                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1068                ),
1069                sep=" ",
1070                prefix=" ",
1071                wrapped=False,
1072            )
1073
1074        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1075        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1076        no_schema_binding = (
1077            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1078        )
1079
1080        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1081        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1082
1083        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1084        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1085
1086    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1087        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1088        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1089        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1090        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1091        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1092        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1093        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1094        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1095        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1096        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1097
1098        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1099        if cache is None:
1100            cache_str = ""
1101        elif cache is True:
1102            cache_str = " CACHE"
1103        else:
1104            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1105
1106        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1107        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1108
1109        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1110
1111    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1112        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1113        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1114        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1115        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1116
1117    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1118        style = expression.args.get("style")
1119        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1120        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1121        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1122        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1123
1124    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1125        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1126        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1127
1128    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1129        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1130        if with_:
1131            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1132        return sql
1133
1134    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1135        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1136        recursive = (
1137            "RECURSIVE "
1138            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1139            else ""
1140        )
1141
1142        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1143
1144    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1145        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1146
1147        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1148        if materialized is False:
1149            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1150        elif materialized:
1151            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1152
1153        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1154
1155    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1156        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1157        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1158        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1159
1160        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1161            columns = ""
1162            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1163
1164        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1165            alias = self._next_name()
1166
1167        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1168
1169    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1170        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1171        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1172            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1173        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1174
1175    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1176        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1177        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1178            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1179        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1180
1181    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1182        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1183        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1184            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1185        return this
1186
1187    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1188        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1189        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1190
1191        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1192            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1193            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1194        else:
1195            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1196            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1197
1198        if escape:
1199            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1200            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1201        else:
1202            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1203            escape_sql = ""
1204
1205        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1206            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1207
1208        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1209
1210    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1211        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1212        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1213
1214    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1215        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1216        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1217        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1218        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1219
1220    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1221        nested = ""
1222        values = ""
1223        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1224
1225        type_value = expression.this
1226        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1227            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1228        elif type_value != exp.DataType.Type.NULLABLE or self.SUPPORTS_NULLABLE_TYPES:
1229            type_sql = (
1230                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1231                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1232                else type_value
1233            )
1234        else:
1235            return interior
1236
1237        if interior:
1238            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1239                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1240                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1241                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1242                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1243                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1244            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1245                nested = f" {interior}"
1246            else:
1247                nested = f"({interior})"
1248
1249        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1250        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1251            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1252            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1253        ):
1254            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1255
1256        return type_sql
1257
1258    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1259        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1260        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1261        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1262        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1263
1264    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1265        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1266        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1267        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1268        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1269        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1270        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1271        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1272        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1273        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1274        if self.RETURNING_END:
1275            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1276        else:
1277            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1278        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1279
1280    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1281        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1282        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1283        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1284        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1285        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1286        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1287        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1288        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1289        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1290        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1291        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1292        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1293        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1294        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1295
1296    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1297        return self.set_operations(expression)
1298
1299    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1300        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1301
1302    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1303        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1304        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1305        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1306        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1307        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1308            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1309        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1310        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1311
1312    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1313        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1314            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1315            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1316            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1317
1318        agg = expression.this
1319        agg_arg = agg.this
1320        cond = expression.expression.this
1321        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1322        return self.sql(agg)
1323
1324    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1325        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1326            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1327            return ""
1328
1329        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1330
1331    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1332        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1333        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1334        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1335        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1336        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1337        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1338        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1339        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1340        if include:
1341            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1342        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1343        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1344        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1345        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1346        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1347        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1348
1349        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1350
1351    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1352        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1353        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1354        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1355        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1356        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1357        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1358        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1359
1360        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1361
1362        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1363        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1364
1365    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1366        text = expression.name
1367        lower = text.lower()
1368        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1369        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1370        if (
1371            expression.quoted
1372            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1373            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1374            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1375        ):
1376            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1377        return text
1378
1379    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1380        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1381        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1382            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1383
1384        return text
1385
1386    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1387        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1388        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1389            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1390        return text
1391
1392    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1393        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1394        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1395        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1396        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1397        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1398
1399    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1400        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1401        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1402
1403    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1404        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1405
1406    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1407        root_properties = []
1408        with_properties = []
1409
1410        for p in expression.expressions:
1411            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1412            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1413                with_properties.append(p)
1414            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1415                root_properties.append(p)
1416
1417        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1418        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1419
1420        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1421            with_props = " " + with_props
1422
1423        return root_props + with_props
1424
1425    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1426        if properties.expressions:
1427            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1428        return ""
1429
1430    def properties(
1431        self,
1432        properties: exp.Properties,
1433        prefix: str = "",
1434        sep: str = ", ",
1435        suffix: str = "",
1436        wrapped: bool = True,
1437    ) -> str:
1438        if properties.expressions:
1439            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1440            if expressions:
1441                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1442                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1443        return ""
1444
1445    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1446        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1447
1448    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1449        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1450        for p in properties.expressions:
1451            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1452            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1453                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1454            else:
1455                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1456
1457        return properties_locs
1458
1459    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1460        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1461            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1462        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1463
1464    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1465        property_cls = expression.__class__
1466        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1467            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1468
1469        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1470        if not property_name:
1471            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1472
1473        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1474
1475    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1476        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1477            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1478            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1479
1480            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1481            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1482                like = f"({like})"
1483
1484            return like
1485
1486        if expression.expressions:
1487            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1488
1489        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1490        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1491
1492    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1493        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1494        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1495        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1496
1497    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1498        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1499        local = expression.args.get("local")
1500        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1501        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1502        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1503        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1504        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1505
1506    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1507        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1508        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1509        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1510
1511    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1512        if expression.args.get("default"):
1513            property = "DEFAULT"
1514        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1515            property = "ON"
1516        else:
1517            property = "OFF"
1518        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1519
1520    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1521        if expression.args.get("no"):
1522            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1523        if expression.args.get("default"):
1524            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1525
1526        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1527        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1528
1529    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1530        default = expression.args.get("default")
1531        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1532        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1533        if default or minimum or maximum:
1534            if default:
1535                prop = "DEFAULT"
1536            elif minimum:
1537                prop = "MINIMUM"
1538            else:
1539                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1540            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1541        units = expression.args.get("units")
1542        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1543        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1544
1545    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1546        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1547        always = expression.args.get("always")
1548        default = expression.args.get("default")
1549        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1550        never = expression.args.get("never")
1551
1552        if autotemp is not None:
1553            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1554        elif always:
1555            prop = "ALWAYS"
1556        elif default:
1557            prop = "DEFAULT"
1558        elif manual:
1559            prop = "MANUAL"
1560        elif never:
1561            prop = "NEVER"
1562        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1563
1564    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1565        no = expression.args.get("no")
1566        no = " NO" if no else ""
1567        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1568        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1569        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1570        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1571        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1572
1573    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1574        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1575            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1576        if expression.this:
1577            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1578            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1579            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1580
1581        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1582        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1583        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1584
1585    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1586        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1587
1588        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1589        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1590            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1591        else:
1592            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1593
1594        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1595
1596    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1597        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1598        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1599        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1600        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1601        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1602        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1603        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1604
1605    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1606        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1607        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1608        statistics_sql = ""
1609        if statistics is not None:
1610            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1611        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1612
1613    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1614        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1615        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1616        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1617        data_consistency = (
1618            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1619        )
1620        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1621        retention_period = (
1622            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1623        )
1624
1625        if this:
1626            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1627        else:
1628            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1629
1630        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1631
1632        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1633
1634    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1635        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1636        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1637
1638        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1639            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1640        else:
1641            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1642
1643        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1644        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1645        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1646        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1647        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1648        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1649        if is_function:
1650            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1651        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1652
1653        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1654        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1655        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1656        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1657        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1658        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1659        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1660        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1661
1662        if self.RETURNING_END:
1663            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1664        else:
1665            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1666
1667        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1668        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1669        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1670        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1671
1672        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1673        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1674
1675        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1676        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1677
1678    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1679        return self.set_operations(expression)
1680
1681    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1682        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1683
1684    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1685        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1686
1687    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1688        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1689        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1690        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1691        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1692        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1693
1694    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1695        return expression.name
1696
1697    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1698        return expression.name
1699
1700    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1701        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1702
1703        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1704        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1705
1706        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1707        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1708        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1709
1710        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1711        if expressions:
1712            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1713            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1714
1715        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1716
1717    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1718        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1719
1720    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1721        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1722        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1723        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1724        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1725        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1726        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1727        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1728        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1729        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1730        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1731        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1732        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1733        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1734
1735    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1736        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1737
1738    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1739        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1740        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1741        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1742        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1743
1744    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1745        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1746        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1747        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1748        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1749
1750    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1751        return ".".join(
1752            self.sql(part)
1753            for part in (
1754                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1755                expression.args.get("db"),
1756                expression.args.get("this"),
1757            )
1758            if part is not None
1759        )
1760
1761    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1762        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1763        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1764        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1765        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1766        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1767        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1768        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1769        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1770
1771        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1772        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1773            sample_pre_alias = sample
1774            sample_post_alias = ""
1775        else:
1776            sample_pre_alias = ""
1777            sample_post_alias = sample
1778
1779        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1780        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1781        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1782        joins = self.indent(
1783            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1784        )
1785        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1786
1787        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1788        if file_format:
1789            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1790            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1791            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1792
1793        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1794        if ordinality:
1795            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1796            alias = ""
1797
1798        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1799        if when:
1800            table = f"{table} {when}"
1801
1802        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1803        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1804
1805        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1806        if rows_from:
1807            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1808
1809        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1810
1811    def tablesample_sql(
1812        self,
1813        expression: exp.TableSample,
1814        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1815    ) -> str:
1816        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1817        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1818        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1819        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1820        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1821        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1822        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1823        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1824        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1825
1826        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1827        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1828            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1829
1830        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1831        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1832            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1833
1834        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1835        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1836            expr = f"({expr})"
1837
1838        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
1839
1840    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1841        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1842
1843        if expression.this:
1844            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1845            if not expressions:
1846                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1847
1848            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1849            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1850            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1851            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1852            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1853
1854        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1855        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1856        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1857
1858        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1859        if field and isinstance(expression.args.get("field"), exp.PivotAny):
1860            field = f"IN ({field})"
1861
1862        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1863        if include_nulls is not None:
1864            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1865        else:
1866            nulls = ""
1867
1868        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1869        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1870        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
1871
1872    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1873        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1874        kind = expression.text("kind")
1875        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1876        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1877
1878    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1879        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
1880
1881    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1882        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1883        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1884        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1885        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1886        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1887        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1888        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1889        if self.RETURNING_END:
1890            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1891        else:
1892            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1893        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1894        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1895
1896    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1897        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1898
1899        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1900        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1901            args = self.expressions(expression)
1902            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1903            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1904            values = (
1905                f"({values})"
1906                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1907                else values
1908            )
1909            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1910
1911        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1912        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1913        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1914
1915        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1916
1917        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1918            row = tup.expressions
1919
1920            if i == 0 and column_names:
1921                row = [
1922                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1923                ]
1924
1925            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1926
1927        if self.pretty:
1928            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1929            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1930            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1931            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1932            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1933
1934        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1935        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1936        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1937
1938    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1939        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1940
1941    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1942        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1943        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1944        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1945
1946    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1947        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1948
1949    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
1950        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
1951        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
1952
1953    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
1954        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
1955        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
1956
1957    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
1958        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
1959        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
1960
1961    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1962        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1963        if group_by_all is True:
1964            modifier = " ALL"
1965        elif group_by_all is False:
1966            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1967        else:
1968            modifier = ""
1969
1970        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1971
1972        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
1973        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
1974        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
1975
1976        groupings = csv(
1977            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
1978            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
1979            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
1980            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1981            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1982        )
1983
1984        if (
1985            expression.expressions
1986            and groupings
1987            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
1988        ):
1989            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1990
1991        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1992
1993    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1994        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1995        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1996
1997    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1998        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1999        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2000        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2001        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2002        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2003        return start + connect
2004
2005    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2006        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2007
2008    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2009        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2010            side = None
2011        else:
2012            side = expression.side
2013
2014        op_sql = " ".join(
2015            op
2016            for op in (
2017                expression.method,
2018                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2019                side,
2020                expression.kind,
2021                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2022            )
2023            if op
2024        )
2025        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2026        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2027        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2028        using = expression.args.get("using")
2029
2030        if not on_sql and using:
2031            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2032
2033        this = expression.this
2034        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2035
2036        if on_sql:
2037            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2038            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2039            if using:
2040                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2041            else:
2042                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2043        elif not op_sql:
2044            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2045                return f" {this_sql}"
2046
2047            return f", {this_sql}"
2048
2049        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2050            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2051
2052        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2053
2054    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2055        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2056        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2057        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2058
2059    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2060        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2061
2062        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2063        if cross_apply is True:
2064            op = "INNER JOIN "
2065        elif cross_apply is False:
2066            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2067        else:
2068            op = ""
2069
2070        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2071
2072    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2073        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2074
2075        if expression.args.get("view"):
2076            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2077            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2078            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2079            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2080            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2081            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2082
2083        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2084        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2085        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2086
2087    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2088        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2089
2090        args = [
2091            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2092            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2093            if e
2094        ]
2095
2096        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2097        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2098        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2099        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2100
2101        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2102
2103    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2104        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2105        value = expression.expression
2106        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2107        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2108        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2109        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2110
2111    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2112        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2113        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2114        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2115        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2116        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2117        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2118        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2119        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2120
2121    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2122        expressions = (
2123            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2124        )
2125        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2126        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2127
2128    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2129        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2130
2131    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2132        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2133            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2134            return ""
2135
2136        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2137        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2138        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2139        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2140
2141        if wait is not None:
2142            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2143                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2144            else:
2145                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2146
2147        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2148
2149    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2150        text = expression.this or ""
2151        if expression.is_string:
2152            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2153        return text
2154
2155    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2156        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2157            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2158            text = "".join(
2159                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2160            )
2161
2162        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2163            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2164        )
2165
2166    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2167        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2168        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2169        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2170        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2171        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2172        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2173        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2174        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2175        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2176        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2177        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2178
2179    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2180        return "NULL"
2181
2182    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2183        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2184
2185    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2186        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2187        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2188        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2189        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2190
2191    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2192        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2193        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2194        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2195        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2196        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2197        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2198        interpolated_values = [
2199            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2200            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2201        ]
2202        interpolate = (
2203            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2204        )
2205        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2206
2207    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2208        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2209
2210    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2211        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2212
2213    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2214        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2215
2216    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2217        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2218        asc = not desc
2219
2220        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2221        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2222        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2223        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2224        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2225
2226        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2227
2228        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2229        nulls_sort_change = ""
2230        if nulls_first and (
2231            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2232        ):
2233            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2234        elif (
2235            nulls_last
2236            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2237            and not nulls_are_last
2238        ):
2239            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2240
2241        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2242        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2243            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2244            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2245                self.unsupported(
2246                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2247                )
2248                nulls_sort_change = ""
2249            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2250                if expression.this.is_int:
2251                    self.unsupported(
2252                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2253                    )
2254                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2255                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2256                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2257                nulls_sort_change = ""
2258
2259        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2260        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2261
2262        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2263
2264    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2265        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2266        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2267
2268        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2269
2270        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2271
2272    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2273        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2274        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2275        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2276        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2277        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2278        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2279        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2280        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2281        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2282        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2283        definition_sqls = [
2284            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2285            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2286        ]
2287        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2288        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2289        body = "".join(
2290            (
2291                partition,
2292                order,
2293                measures,
2294                rows,
2295                after,
2296                pattern,
2297                define,
2298            )
2299        )
2300        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2301        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2302        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2303
2304    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2305        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2306
2307        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2308            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2309        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2310            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2311
2312        return csv(
2313            *sqls,
2314            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2315            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2316            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2317            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2318            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2319            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2320            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2321            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2322            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2323            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2324            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2325            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2326            self.options_modifier(expression),
2327            sep="",
2328        )
2329
2330    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2331        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2332        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2333
2334    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2335        return ""
2336
2337    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2338        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2339    ) -> t.List[str]:
2340        return [
2341            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2342            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2343        ]
2344
2345    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2346        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2347        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2348        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2349
2350    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2351        into = expression.args.get("into")
2352        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2353            into.pop()
2354
2355        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2356        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2357        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2358        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2359
2360        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2361        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2362            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2363            limit.pop()
2364        else:
2365            top = ""
2366
2367        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2368
2369        if kind:
2370            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2371                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2372            else:
2373                if kind == "STRUCT":
2374                    expressions = self.expressions(
2375                        sqls=[
2376                            self.sql(
2377                                exp.Struct(
2378                                    expressions=[
2379                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2380                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2381                                        else e
2382                                        for e in expression.expressions
2383                                    ]
2384                                )
2385                            )
2386                        ]
2387                    )
2388                kind = ""
2389
2390        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2391        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2392        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2393        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2394        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2395            expression,
2396            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2397            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2398            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2399        )
2400
2401        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2402
2403        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2404            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2405                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2406            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2407                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2408            else:
2409                table_kind = ""
2410            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2411
2412        return sql
2413
2414    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2415        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2416        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2417        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2418
2419    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2420        if expression.expressions:
2421            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2422        return ""
2423
2424    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2425        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2426        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2427        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2428        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2429        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2430        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2431        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2432
2433    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2434        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2435        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2436
2437    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2438        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2439        kind = expression.text("kind")
2440        if kind:
2441            kind = f"{kind}."
2442        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2443
2444    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2445        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2446
2447    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2448        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2449        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2450        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2451        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2452            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2453
2454            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2455            expression.set("sample", None)
2456
2457        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2458        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2459        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2460
2461    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2462        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2463        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2464
2465    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2466        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2467            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2468            order = expression.args.get("order")
2469
2470            if limit or order:
2471                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2472
2473                if limit:
2474                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2475                if order:
2476                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2477                return self.sql(select)
2478
2479        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2480        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2481
2482        while stack:
2483            node = stack.pop()
2484
2485            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2486                stack.append(node.expression)
2487                stack.append(
2488                    self.maybe_comment(
2489                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2490                        comments=node.comments,
2491                        separated=True,
2492                    )
2493                )
2494                stack.append(node.this)
2495            else:
2496                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2497
2498        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2499        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2500        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2501
2502    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2503        return self.set_operations(expression)
2504
2505    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2506        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2507        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2508        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2509        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2510
2511    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2512        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2513
2514        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2515        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2516
2517        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2518            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2519                alias.append("columns", offset)
2520
2521        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2522            columns = alias.columns
2523            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2524        else:
2525            alias = self.sql(alias)
2526
2527        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2528        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2529            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2530        else:
2531            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2532                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2533            elif offset:
2534                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2535            else:
2536                suffix = alias
2537
2538        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2539
2540    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2541        return ""
2542
2543    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2544        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2545        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2546
2547    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2548        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2549        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2550        order = expression.args.get("order")
2551        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2552        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2553        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2554        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2555
2556        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2557
2558        first = expression.args.get("first")
2559        if first is None:
2560            first = ""
2561        else:
2562            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2563
2564        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2565            return f"{this} {alias}"
2566
2567        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2568        return f"{this} ({args})"
2569
2570    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2571        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2572        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2573
2574    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2575        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2576        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2577        end = (
2578            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2579            or "CURRENT ROW"
2580        )
2581        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2582
2583    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2584        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2585        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2586        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2587
2588    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2589        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2590        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2591        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2592        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2593
2594    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2595        return apply_index_offset(
2596            expression.this,
2597            expression.expressions,
2598            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2599        )
2600
2601    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2602        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2603        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2604        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2605
2606    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2607        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2608
2609    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2610        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2611        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2612            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2613                this = self.wrap(this)
2614            return f"ANY{this}"
2615        return f"ANY {this}"
2616
2617    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2618        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2619
2620    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2621        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2622        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2623
2624        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2625            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2626            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2627
2628        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2629
2630        if default:
2631            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2632
2633        statements.append("END")
2634
2635        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2636            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2637
2638        return " ".join(statements)
2639
2640    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2641        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2642        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2643        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2644
2645    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2646        order = expression.args.get("order")
2647        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2648        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2649
2650    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2651        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2652        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2653        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2654
2655    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2656        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2657
2658        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2659            func_name = "LTRIM"
2660        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2661            func_name = "RTRIM"
2662        else:
2663            func_name = "TRIM"
2664
2665        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2666
2667    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2668        args = expression.expressions
2669        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2670            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2671
2672        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2673            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2674
2675        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2676            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2677
2678        return args
2679
2680    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2681        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2682
2683        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2684        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2685            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2686
2687        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2688
2689    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2690        return self.func(
2691            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2692        )
2693
2694    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2695        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2696        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2697
2698    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2699        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2700        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2701        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2702        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2703        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2704        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2705        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2706        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2707
2708    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2709        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2710        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2711        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2712        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2713
2714    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2715        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2716
2717    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2718        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2719        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2720        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2721
2722    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2723        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2724
2725    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2726        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2727        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2728            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2729
2730        return path
2731
2732    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2733        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2734            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2735            if not callable(transform):
2736                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2737                return ""
2738
2739            return transform(self, expression)
2740
2741        if isinstance(expression, int):
2742            return str(expression)
2743
2744        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2745            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2746            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2747        else:
2748            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2749            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2750
2751        return escaped
2752
2753    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2754        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2755
2756    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2757        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2758        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2759
2760        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2761        if unique_keys is not None:
2762            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2763        else:
2764            unique_keys = ""
2765
2766        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2767        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2768        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2769        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2770
2771        return self.func(
2772            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2773            *expression.expressions,
2774            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2775        )
2776
2777    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2778        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2779
2780    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2781        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2782        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2783        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2784        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2785        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2786        return self.func(
2787            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2788        )
2789
2790    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2791        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2792        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2793        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2794        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2795        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2796        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2797        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2798        return self.func(
2799            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2800            this,
2801            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2802        )
2803
2804    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2805        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2806        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2807        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2808
2809        if nested_schema:
2810            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2811
2812        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2813        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2814        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2815        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2816
2817    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2818        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2819
2820    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2821        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2822        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2823        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2824        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2825        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2826        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2827        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2828        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2829        return self.func(
2830            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2831        )
2832
2833    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2834        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2835        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2836        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2837        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2838        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2839        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2840
2841    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2842        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2843        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2844        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2845        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2846        with_ = (
2847            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2848            if expressions
2849            else ""
2850        )
2851        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2852
2853    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2854        query = expression.args.get("query")
2855        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2856        field = expression.args.get("field")
2857        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2858
2859        if query:
2860            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2861        elif unnest:
2862            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2863        elif field:
2864            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2865        else:
2866            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2867
2868        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2869
2870    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2871        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2872
2873    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2874        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2875        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2876            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2877        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2878
2879        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2880            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2881            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2882
2883        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2884        if this:
2885            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2886            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2887
2888        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2889
2890    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2891        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2892
2893    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2894        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2895        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2896        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2897        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2898        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2899        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2900
2901    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2902        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
2903        parent = expression.parent
2904        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
2905        return self.func(
2906            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
2907        )
2908
2909    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2910        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2911        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2912
2913    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2914        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2915        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2916        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2917        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2918
2919    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2920        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2921
2922    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2923        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2924        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2925        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2926
2927    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2928        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2929
2930        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2931        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
2932
2933        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2934            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2935        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2936            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2937
2938        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2939
2940    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2941        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2942
2943    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2944        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2945        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2946        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2947
2948    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2949        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2950        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2951        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2952
2953    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2954        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2955        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2956        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2957
2958    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2959        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2960
2961    def and_sql(
2962        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2963    ) -> str:
2964        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2965
2966    def or_sql(
2967        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2968    ) -> str:
2969        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2970
2971    def xor_sql(
2972        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2973    ) -> str:
2974        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2975
2976    def connector_sql(
2977        self,
2978        expression: exp.Connector,
2979        op: str,
2980        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2981    ) -> str:
2982        if stack is not None:
2983            if expression.expressions:
2984                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2985            else:
2986                stack.append(expression.right)
2987                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2988                    for comment in expression.comments:
2989                        if comment:
2990                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2991                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2992            return op
2993
2994        stack = [expression]
2995        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2996        ops = set()
2997
2998        while stack:
2999            node = stack.pop()
3000            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3001                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3002            else:
3003                sql = self.sql(node)
3004                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3005                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3006                else:
3007                    sqls.append(sql)
3008
3009        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3010        return sep.join(sqls)
3011
3012    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3013        return self.binary(expression, "&")
3014
3015    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3016        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3017
3018    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3019        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3020
3021    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3022        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3023
3024    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3025        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3026
3027    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3028        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3029
3030    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3031        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3032        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3033        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3034        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3035        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3036        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3037        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3038
3039    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3040        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3041        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3042
3043    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3044        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3045            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3046        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3047
3048    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3049        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3050
3051    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3052        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3053        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3054        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3055        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3056        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3057        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3058
3059    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3060        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3061        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3062        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3063        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3064        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3065        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3066        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3067        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3068        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3069
3070    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3071        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3072        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3073        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3074        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3075
3076        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3077            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3078
3079        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3080
3081    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3082        return "BEGIN"
3083
3084    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3085        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3086        if chain is not None:
3087            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3088
3089        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3090
3091    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3092        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3093        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3094        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3095
3096    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3097        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3098
3099        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3100        if dtype:
3101            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3102            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3103            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3104            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3105            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3106
3107        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3108        if default:
3109            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3110
3111        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3112        if comment:
3113            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3114
3115        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3116        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3117
3118        if not drop and not allow_null:
3119            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3120
3121        if allow_null is not None:
3122            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3123            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3124
3125        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3126
3127    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3128        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3129        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3130            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3131        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3132
3133    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3134        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3135        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3136        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3137        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3138        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3139
3140    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3141        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3142            # Remove db from tables
3143            expression = expression.transform(
3144                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3145            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3146        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3147        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3148
3149    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3150        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3151        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3152        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3153        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3154
3155    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3156        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3157        return f"SET {exprs}"
3158
3159    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3160        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3161
3162        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3163            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3164        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3165            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3166        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3167            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3168        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3169            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3170        else:
3171            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3172
3173        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3174        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3175        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3176        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3177        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3178        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3179        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3180        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
3181
3182    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3183        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3184            return self.expressions(
3185                expression,
3186                key="actions",
3187                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3188                skip_first=True,
3189            )
3190        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3191
3192    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3193        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3194        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3195        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3196
3197    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3198        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3199
3200    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3201        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3202
3203        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3204            case = exp.case()
3205            for arg in expression.expressions:
3206                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3207            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3208
3209        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3210
3211        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3212        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3213        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3214
3215    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3216        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3217
3218    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3219        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3220
3221    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3222        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3223        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3224        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3225        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3226
3227    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3228        return self.sql(
3229            exp.Cast(
3230                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3231                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3232            )
3233        )
3234
3235    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3236        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3237            return self.func(
3238                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3239            )
3240        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3241
3242    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3243        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3244
3245        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3246            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3247
3248        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3249            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3250                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3251
3252        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3253            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3254                return self.sql(
3255                    exp.cast(
3256                        l / r,
3257                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3258                    )
3259                )
3260
3261        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3262
3263    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3264        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3265
3266    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3267        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3268
3269    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3270        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3271
3272    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3273        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3274
3275    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3276        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3277
3278    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3279        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3280
3281    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3282        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3283
3284    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3285        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3286
3287    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3288        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3289
3290    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3291        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3292
3293    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3294        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3295
3296    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3297        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3298            return self.sql(
3299                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3300            )
3301        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3302
3303    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3304        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3305
3306    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3307        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3308
3309    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3310        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3311
3312    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3313        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3314
3315    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3316        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3317
3318    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3319        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3320
3321    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3322        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3323
3324    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3325        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3326
3327    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3328        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3329
3330    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3331        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3332
3333    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3334        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3335
3336    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3337        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3338
3339    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3340        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3341
3342    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3343        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3344            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3345            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3346
3347        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3348
3349    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3350        this = expression.this
3351        expr = expression.expression
3352
3353        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3354            this, expr = expr, this
3355        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3356            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3357                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3358
3359            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3360
3361        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3362
3363    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3364        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3365        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3366        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3367        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3368        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3369
3370    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3371        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3372        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3373        binary_type = type(expression)
3374
3375        while stack:
3376            node = stack.pop()
3377
3378            if type(node) is binary_type:
3379                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3380                if op_func:
3381                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3382
3383                stack.append(node.right)
3384                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3385                stack.append(node.left)
3386            else:
3387                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3388
3389        return "".join(sqls)
3390
3391    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3392        args = []
3393
3394        for key in expression.arg_types:
3395            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3396
3397            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3398                for value in arg_value:
3399                    args.append(value)
3400            elif arg_value is not None:
3401                args.append(arg_value)
3402
3403        if self.normalize_functions:
3404            name = expression.sql_name()
3405        else:
3406            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3407
3408        return self.func(name, *args)
3409
3410    def func(
3411        self,
3412        name: str,
3413        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3414        prefix: str = "(",
3415        suffix: str = ")",
3416        normalize: bool = True,
3417    ) -> str:
3418        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3419        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3420
3421    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3422        arg_sqls = tuple(
3423            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3424        )
3425        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3426            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3427        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3428
3429    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3430        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3431
3432    def format_time(
3433        self,
3434        expression: exp.Expression,
3435        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3436        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3437    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3438        return format_time(
3439            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3440            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3441            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3442        )
3443
3444    def expressions(
3445        self,
3446        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3447        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3448        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3449        flat: bool = False,
3450        indent: bool = True,
3451        skip_first: bool = False,
3452        skip_last: bool = False,
3453        sep: str = ", ",
3454        prefix: str = "",
3455        dynamic: bool = False,
3456        new_line: bool = False,
3457    ) -> str:
3458        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3459
3460        if not expressions:
3461            return ""
3462
3463        if flat:
3464            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3465
3466        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3467        result_sqls = []
3468
3469        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3470            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3471            if not sql:
3472                continue
3473
3474            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3475
3476            if self.pretty:
3477                if self.leading_comma:
3478                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3479                else:
3480                    result_sqls.append(
3481                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3482                    )
3483            else:
3484                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3485
3486        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3487            if new_line:
3488                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3489                result_sqls.append("")
3490            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3491        else:
3492            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3493        return (
3494            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3495            if indent
3496            else result_sql
3497        )
3498
3499    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3500        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3501        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3502        if flat:
3503            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3504        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3505
3506    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3507        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3508        if not property_name:
3509            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3510        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3511
3512    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3513        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3514
3515    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3516        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3517
3518    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3519        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3520        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3521        expressions = (
3522            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3523        )
3524        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3525
3526    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3527        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3528        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3529        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3530
3531    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3532        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3533
3534    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3535        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3536        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3537        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3538        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3539
3540        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3541        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3542            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3543            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3544            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3545            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3546        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3547            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3548                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3549            else:
3550                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3551        else:
3552            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3553        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3554
3555    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3556        table = expression.this
3557        table_alias = ""
3558
3559        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3560        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3561            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3562            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3563
3564        this = self.sql(table)
3565        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3566        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3567        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3568        sep = self.sep()
3569
3570        return self.prepend_ctes(
3571            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3572        )
3573
3574    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3575        if expression.args.get("format"):
3576            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3577
3578        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3579
3580    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3581        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3582            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3583            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3584
3585        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3586        if not fmt:
3587            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3588            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3589
3590        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3591
3592    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3593        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3594        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3595        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3596        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3597        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3598
3599    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3600        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3601        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3602        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3603        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3604
3605    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3606        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3607
3608    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3609        return ""
3610
3611    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3612        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3613        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3614        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3615        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3616        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3617
3618    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3619        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3620        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3621
3622        if having:
3623            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3624
3625        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3626
3627    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3628        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3629        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3630        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3631        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3632        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3633        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3634        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3635        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3636        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3637        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3638        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3639        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3640        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3641
3642    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3643        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3644        if key_block_size:
3645            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3646
3647        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3648        if using:
3649            return f"USING {using}"
3650
3651        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3652        if parser:
3653            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3654
3655        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3656        if comment:
3657            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3658
3659        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3660        if visible is not None:
3661            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3662
3663        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3664        if engine_attr:
3665            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3666
3667        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3668        if secondary_engine_attr:
3669            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3670
3671        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3672        return ""
3673
3674    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3675        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3676        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3677
3678    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3679        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3680        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3681        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3682        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3683        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3684        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3685        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3686        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3687        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3688        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3689        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3690
3691    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3692        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3693            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3694
3695        case = exp.Case().when(
3696            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3697            expression.args["true"],
3698            copy=False,
3699        )
3700        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3701        if else_cond:
3702            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3703
3704        return self.sql(case)
3705
3706    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3707        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3708        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3709        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3710        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3711        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3712        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3713
3714    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3715        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3716
3717    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3718        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3719
3720    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3721        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3722        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3723        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3724        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3725        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3726        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3727
3728    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3729        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3730        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3731        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3732
3733    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3734        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3735        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3736        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3737
3738    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3739        arg = expression.this
3740        if not arg.type:
3741            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3742
3743            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3744
3745        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3746            return self.sql(arg)
3747
3748        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3749        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3750
3751    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3752        this = expression.this
3753        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3754            return self.sql(this)
3755
3756        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3757
3758    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3759        this = expression.this
3760        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3761            return self.sql(this)
3762
3763        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3764
3765    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3766        this = expression.this
3767        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3768
3769        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3770            return self.sql(
3771                exp.cast(
3772                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3773                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3774                )
3775            )
3776
3777        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3778            return self.sql(this)
3779
3780        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3781
3782    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3783        return self.sql(
3784            exp.func(
3785                "DATEDIFF",
3786                expression.this,
3787                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3788                "day",
3789            )
3790        )
3791
3792    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3793        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3794            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3795
3796        unit = expression.text("unit")
3797        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3798            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3799
3800        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3801
3802    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3803        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3804
3805        return self.func(
3806            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3807        )
3808
3809    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3810        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3811            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3812            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3813            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3814            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3815
3816        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3817
3818        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3819        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3820            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3821
3822        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3823
3824    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3825        expression.set(
3826            "expressions",
3827            [
3828                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3829                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3830                else e
3831                for e in expression.expressions
3832            ],
3833        )
3834
3835        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3836
3837    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3838        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3839        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3840
3841        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3842
3843    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3844        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3845        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3846
3847        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3848
3849        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3850        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3851
3852        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3853        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3854
3855        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3856        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3857
3858        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3859        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3860
3861        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3862
3863    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3864    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3865    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3866        to = expression.this
3867        value = expression.expression
3868        style = expression.args.get("style")
3869        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3870        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3871
3872        if not to or not value:
3873            return ""
3874
3875        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3876        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3877            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3878
3879        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3880        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3881
3882        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3883        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3884            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3885
3886            style_value = style.name
3887            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3888            if not converted_style:
3889                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3890
3891            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3892
3893            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3894                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3895            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3896                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3897            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3898                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3899            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3900                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3901
3902        if not transformed:
3903            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3904
3905        return self.sql(transformed)
3906
3907    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3908        this = expression.this
3909        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3910            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3911            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3912
3913        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3914            return f".{this}"
3915
3916        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3917        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3918
3919    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3920        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3921        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3922
3923    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3924        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3925            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3926
3927            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3928
3929        return expression
3930
3931    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3932        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3933            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3934            mods = sorted(
3935                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3936                key=lambda x: 0
3937                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3938                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3939            )
3940
3941            if mods:
3942                mod = mods[0]
3943                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3944                this.meta["inline"] = True
3945                mod.this.replace(this)
3946                return self.sql(expression.this)
3947
3948            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3949
3950            if agg_func:
3951                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3952
3953        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3954
3955    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3956        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3957        if self.pretty:
3958            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3959        return string
3960
3961    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3962        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3963
3964        if expression.expressions:
3965            upper = option.upper()
3966
3967            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3968            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3969
3970            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3971            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3972            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3973            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3974
3975        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3976
3977        if not value:
3978            return option
3979
3980        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3981
3982        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3983
3984    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3985        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3986        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3987            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3988            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3989            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3990        else:
3991            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3992            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3993            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3994
3995        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3996        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3997
3998        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3999        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4000
4001        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4002        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4003
4004        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4005        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4006
4007        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
4008
4009    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4010        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4011        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4012
4013        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4014        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4015        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4016        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4017
4018        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4019        params = self.expressions(
4020            expression,
4021            key="params",
4022            sep=sep,
4023            new_line=True,
4024            skip_last=True,
4025            skip_first=True,
4026            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4027        )
4028
4029        if params:
4030            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4031                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4032            elif not self.pretty:
4033                params = f" {params}"
4034
4035        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4036
4037    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4038        return ""
4039
4040    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4041        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4042        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4043        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4044        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4045        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4046
4047        if filter_col or retention_period:
4048            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4049
4050        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4051
4052    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4053        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4054    ) -> str:
4055        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4056        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4057        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4058        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4059
4060    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4061        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4062        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4063        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4064
4065    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4066        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4067
4068    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4069        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4070        expr = expression.expression
4071
4072        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4073            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4074            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4075        else:
4076            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4077
4078        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4079
4080    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4081        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4082            return self.sql(expression.this)
4083
4084        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4085
4086    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4087        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4088        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4089
4090        if lower and upper:
4091            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4092        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4093
4094    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4095        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4096        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4097        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4098        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4099        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4100        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4101
4102        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4103
4104    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4105        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4106
4107        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4108        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4109            fill_pattern = "' '"
4110
4111        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4112
4113    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4114        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4115        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4116
4117    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4118        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4119
4120        parent = expression.parent
4121        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4122            parent = parent.parent
4123
4124        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4125            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4126
4127        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4128            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4129
4130        return self.sql(generate_series)
4131
4132    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4133        exprs = expression.expressions
4134        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4135            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4136        else:
4137            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4138
4139        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
4140
4141    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4142        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4143            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4144
4145        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4146        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4147        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4148
4149        if source_tz and timestamp:
4150            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4151                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4152            )
4153
4154        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4155
4156        return self.sql(expr)
4157
4158    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4159        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4160        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4161
4162        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4163
4164        if _with is None:
4165            with_sql = ""
4166        elif not _with:
4167            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4168        else:
4169            with_sql = " WITH"
4170
4171        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4172
4173        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
4174
4175    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4176        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4177            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4178
4179        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4180        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4181        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4182
4183        on_empty = expression.args.get("on_empty")
4184        on_empty = f" {_generate_on_options(on_empty)} ON EMPTY" if on_empty else ""
4185
4186        on_error = expression.args.get("on_error")
4187        on_error = f" {_generate_on_options(on_error)} ON ERROR" if on_error else ""
4188
4189        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_empty}{on_error}")
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
class Generator:
  37class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  38    """
  39    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  40
  41    Args:
  42        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  43            Default: False.
  44        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  45            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  46            True or 'always': Always quote.
  47            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  48        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  49            Default: False.
  50        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  51            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  52            Default: 2.
  53        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  54            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  55            Default: 2.
  56        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  57            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  58            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  59            False: Disables function name normalization.
  60        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  61            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  62        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  63            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  64            Default: 3
  65        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  66            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  67            Default: False
  68        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  69            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  70            line length.
  71            Default: 80
  72        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  73            Default: True
  74    """
  75
  76    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  77        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  78        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
  79        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
  80        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  82        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  83        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  84        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  85        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  86        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  88        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  89        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  93        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  95        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
  96        exp.EmptyProperty: lambda *_: "EMPTY",
  97        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  98        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  99        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
 100        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 101        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 102        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 103        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 104        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 105        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 106        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 107        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 108        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 109        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 110        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 111        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 112        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 113        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 114        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 115        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 116        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 117        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 118        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 119        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 120        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.Operator: lambda self, e: self.binary(e, ""),  # The operator is produced in `binary`
 123        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 127        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 128        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 129        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 130        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 131            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 132        ),
 133        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 134        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 135        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 136        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 137        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 138        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 139        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 140        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 141        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 142        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 143        exp.Stream: lambda self, e: f"STREAM {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 144        exp.StreamingTableProperty: lambda *_: "STREAMING",
 145        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 146        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 147        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 148        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 150        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 151        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 152        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 153        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 154        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 155        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 156        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 157        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 158        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 159        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 160        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 161    }
 162
 163    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 164    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 165    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 166
 167    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 168    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 169    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 170
 171    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 172    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 173
 174    # Always do <set op> distinct or <set op> all
 175    EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
 176
 177    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 178    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 179
 180    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 181    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 182
 183    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 184    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 185
 186    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 187    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 188
 189    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 190    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 191
 192    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 193    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 194
 195    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 196    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 197
 198    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 199    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 200
 201    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 202    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 203
 204    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 205    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 206
 207    # Whether join hints should be generated
 208    JOIN_HINTS = True
 209
 210    # Whether table hints should be generated
 211    TABLE_HINTS = True
 212
 213    # Whether query hints should be generated
 214    QUERY_HINTS = True
 215
 216    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 217    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 218
 219    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 220    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 221
 222    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 223    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 224
 225    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 226    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 227
 228    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 229    RETURNING_END = True
 230
 231    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 232    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 233
 234    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 235    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 236
 237    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 238    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 239
 240    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 241    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 242
 243    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 244    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 245    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 246    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 247
 248    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 249    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 250
 251    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 252    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 253
 254    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 255    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 256
 257    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 258    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 259
 260    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 261    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 262
 263    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 264    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 265
 266    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 267    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 268
 269    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 270    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 271
 272    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 273    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 274
 275    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 276    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 277
 278    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 279    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 280
 281    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 282    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 283
 284    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 285    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 286
 287    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 288    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 289
 290    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 291    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 292
 293    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 294    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 295
 296    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 297    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 298
 299    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 300    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 301
 302    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 303    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 304
 305    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 306    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 307
 308    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 309    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 310
 311    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 312    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 313
 314    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 315    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 316
 317    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 318    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 319
 320    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 321    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 322
 323    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 324    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 325    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 326
 327    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 328    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 329
 330    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 331    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 332
 333    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 334    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 335
 336    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 337    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 338
 339    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 340    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 341
 342    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 343    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 344
 345    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 346    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 347    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 348    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 349
 350    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 351    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 352
 353    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 354    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 355
 356    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 357    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 358
 359    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 360    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 361
 362    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 363    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 364
 365    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 366    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 367
 368    # The HEX function name
 369    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 370
 371    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 372    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 373
 374    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 375    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 376
 377    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 378    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 379
 380    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 381    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 382
 383    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 384    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 385
 386    # Whether CONVERT_TIMEZONE() is supported; if not, it will be generated as exp.AtTimeZone
 387    SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
 388
 389    # Whether nullable types can be constructed, e.g. `Nullable(Int64)`
 390    SUPPORTS_NULLABLE_TYPES = True
 391
 392    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 393    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 394
 395    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 396        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 397        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 398        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 399        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 400        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 401        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 402        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 403        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 404        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 405        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 406    }
 407
 408    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 409        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 410        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 411        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 412        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 413        "DAYS": "DAY",
 414        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 415        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 416        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 417        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 418    }
 419
 420    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 421        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 422        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 423        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 424        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 425            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 426            if e.args.get("windows")
 427            else ""
 428        ),
 429        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 430    }
 431
 432    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 433
 434    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 435
 436    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 437    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 438
 439    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 440        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 441        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 442        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 443        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 444        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 445        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 446        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 447        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 448        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 449        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 451        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 452        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 453        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 454        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 455        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 456        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 457        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 458        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 459        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 460        exp.EmptyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 461        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 462        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 463        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 464        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 465        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 466        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 467        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 468        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 469        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 470        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 471        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 472        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 473        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 474        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 475        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 476        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 477        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 478        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 479        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 480        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 481        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 482        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 483        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 484        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 485        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 486        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 487        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 488        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 489        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 490        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 491        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 492        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 493        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 494        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 495        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 496        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 497        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 498        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 499        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 500        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 501        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 502        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 503        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 504        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 505        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 506        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 507        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 508        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 509        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 510        exp.StreamingTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 511        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 512        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 513        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 514        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 515        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 516        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 517        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 518        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 519        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 520        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 521        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 522        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 523        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 524    }
 525
 526    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 527    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 528
 529    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 530    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 531        exp.Command,
 532        exp.Create,
 533        exp.Delete,
 534        exp.Drop,
 535        exp.From,
 536        exp.Insert,
 537        exp.Join,
 538        exp.Select,
 539        exp.SetOperation,
 540        exp.Update,
 541        exp.Where,
 542        exp.With,
 543    )
 544
 545    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 546    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 547        exp.Binary,
 548        exp.SetOperation,
 549    )
 550
 551    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 552    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 553        exp.Column,
 554        exp.Literal,
 555        exp.Neg,
 556        exp.Paren,
 557    )
 558
 559    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 560        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 561        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 562        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 563        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 564    }
 565
 566    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 567    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 568
 569    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 570
 571    __slots__ = (
 572        "pretty",
 573        "identify",
 574        "normalize",
 575        "pad",
 576        "_indent",
 577        "normalize_functions",
 578        "unsupported_level",
 579        "max_unsupported",
 580        "leading_comma",
 581        "max_text_width",
 582        "comments",
 583        "dialect",
 584        "unsupported_messages",
 585        "_escaped_quote_end",
 586        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 587        "_next_name",
 588    )
 589
 590    def __init__(
 591        self,
 592        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 593        identify: str | bool = False,
 594        normalize: bool = False,
 595        pad: int = 2,
 596        indent: int = 2,
 597        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 598        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 599        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 600        leading_comma: bool = False,
 601        max_text_width: int = 80,
 602        comments: bool = True,
 603        dialect: DialectType = None,
 604    ):
 605        import sqlglot
 606        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 607
 608        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 609        self.identify = identify
 610        self.normalize = normalize
 611        self.pad = pad
 612        self._indent = indent
 613        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 614        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 615        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 616        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 617        self.comments = comments
 618        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 619
 620        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 621        self.normalize_functions = (
 622            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 623        )
 624
 625        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 626        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 627            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 628        )
 629        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 630            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 631        )
 632
 633        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 634
 635    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 636        """
 637        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 638
 639        Args:
 640            expression: The syntax tree.
 641            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 642                it is safer to copy.
 643
 644        Returns:
 645            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 646        """
 647        if copy:
 648            expression = expression.copy()
 649
 650        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 651
 652        self.unsupported_messages = []
 653        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 654
 655        if self.pretty:
 656            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 657
 658        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 659            return sql
 660
 661        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 662            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 663                logger.warning(msg)
 664        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 665            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 666
 667        return sql
 668
 669    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 670        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 671        if (
 672            not expression.parent
 673            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 674            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 675        ):
 676            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 677
 678            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 679
 680        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 681            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 682
 683            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 684
 685        return expression
 686
 687    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 688        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 689            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 690        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 691
 692    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 693        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 694
 695    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 696        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 697
 698    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 699        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 700        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 701        return comment
 702
 703    def maybe_comment(
 704        self,
 705        sql: str,
 706        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 707        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 708        separated: bool = False,
 709    ) -> str:
 710        comments = (
 711            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 712            if self.comments
 713            else None
 714        )
 715
 716        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 717            return sql
 718
 719        comments_sql = " ".join(
 720            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 721        )
 722
 723        if not comments_sql:
 724            return sql
 725
 726        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 727
 728        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 729            return (
 730                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 731                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 732                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 733            )
 734
 735        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 736
 737    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 738        this_sql = (
 739            self.sql(expression)
 740            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 741            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 742        )
 743        if not this_sql:
 744            return "()"
 745
 746        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 747        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 748
 749    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 750        original = self.identify
 751        self.identify = False
 752        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 753        self.identify = original
 754        return result
 755
 756    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 757        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 758            return name.upper()
 759        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 760            return name.lower()
 761        return name
 762
 763    def indent(
 764        self,
 765        sql: str,
 766        level: int = 0,
 767        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 768        skip_first: bool = False,
 769        skip_last: bool = False,
 770    ) -> str:
 771        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 772            return sql
 773
 774        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 775        lines = sql.split("\n")
 776
 777        return "\n".join(
 778            (
 779                line
 780                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 781                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 782            )
 783            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 784        )
 785
 786    def sql(
 787        self,
 788        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 789        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 790        comment: bool = True,
 791    ) -> str:
 792        if not expression:
 793            return ""
 794
 795        if isinstance(expression, str):
 796            return expression
 797
 798        if key:
 799            value = expression.args.get(key)
 800            if value:
 801                return self.sql(value)
 802            return ""
 803
 804        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 805
 806        if callable(transform):
 807            sql = transform(self, expression)
 808        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 809            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 810
 811            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 812                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 813            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 814                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 815            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 816                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 817            else:
 818                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 819        else:
 820            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 821
 822        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 823
 824    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 825        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 826        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 827        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 828
 829    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 830        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 831        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 832        options = expression.args.get("options")
 833        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 834        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 835        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 836        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 837        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 838
 839    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 840        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 841            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 842        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 843        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 844
 845    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 846        return ".".join(
 847            self.sql(part)
 848            for part in (
 849                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 850                expression.args.get("db"),
 851                expression.args.get("table"),
 852                expression.args.get("this"),
 853            )
 854            if part
 855        )
 856
 857    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 858        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 859
 860        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 861            join_mark = ""
 862            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 863
 864        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 865
 866    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 867        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 868        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 869        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 870        return f"{position}{this}"
 871
 872    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 873        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 874        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 875        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 876        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 877        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 878        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 879        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 880        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 881
 882        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 883            kind = ""
 884
 885        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 886
 887    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 888        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 889        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 890        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 891
 892    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 893        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 894        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 895            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 896        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 897            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 898        else:
 899            persisted = ""
 900        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 901
 902    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 903        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 904
 905    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 906        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 907            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 908        else:
 909            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 910
 911        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 912
 913    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 914        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 915    ) -> str:
 916        this = ""
 917        if expression.this is not None:
 918            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 919            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 920
 921        start = expression.args.get("start")
 922        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 923        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 924        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 925        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 926        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 927        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 928        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 929        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 930        cycle_sql = ""
 931
 932        if cycle is not None:
 933            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 934            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 935
 936        sequence_opts = ""
 937        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 938            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 939            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 940
 941        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 942        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 943
 944        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 945
 946    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 947        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 948    ) -> str:
 949        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 950        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 951        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 952
 953    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 954        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 955    ) -> str:
 956        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 957
 958    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 959        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 960
 961    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 962        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 963
 964    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 965        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 966        if desc is not None:
 967            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 968        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 969
 970    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 971        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 972        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 973        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 974        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 975        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 976        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 977        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
 978        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 979
 980    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 981        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 982
 983    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 984        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 985        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
 986        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 987        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 988
 989        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 990
 991        properties_sql = ""
 992        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 993            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 994        ):
 995            properties_sql = self.sql(
 996                exp.Properties(
 997                    expressions=[
 998                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 999                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1000                    ]
1001                )
1002            )
1003
1004            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1005                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1006            elif not self.pretty:
1007                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1008                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1009
1010        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1011        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1012
1013        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1014        if expression_sql:
1015            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1016
1017            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1018                postalias_props_sql = ""
1019                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1020                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1021                        exp.Properties(
1022                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1023                        ),
1024                        wrapped=False,
1025                    )
1026                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1027                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1028
1029        postindex_props_sql = ""
1030        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1031            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1032                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1033                wrapped=False,
1034                prefix=" ",
1035            )
1036
1037        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1038        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1039        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1040
1041        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1042        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1043        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1044
1045        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1046        if clustered is None:
1047            clustered_sql = ""
1048        elif clustered:
1049            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1050        else:
1051            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1052
1053        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1054        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1055            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1056                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1057                sep=" ",
1058                prefix=" ",
1059                wrapped=False,
1060            )
1061
1062        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1063
1064        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1065        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1066            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1067                exp.Properties(
1068                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1069                ),
1070                sep=" ",
1071                prefix=" ",
1072                wrapped=False,
1073            )
1074
1075        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1076        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1077        no_schema_binding = (
1078            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1079        )
1080
1081        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1082        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1083
1084        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1085        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1086
1087    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1088        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1089        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1090        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1091        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1092        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1093        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1094        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1095        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1096        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1097        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1098
1099        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1100        if cache is None:
1101            cache_str = ""
1102        elif cache is True:
1103            cache_str = " CACHE"
1104        else:
1105            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1106
1107        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1108        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1109
1110        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1111
1112    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1113        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1114        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1115        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1116        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1117
1118    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1119        style = expression.args.get("style")
1120        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1121        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1122        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1123        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
1124
1125    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1126        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1127        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1128
1129    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1130        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1131        if with_:
1132            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1133        return sql
1134
1135    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1136        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1137        recursive = (
1138            "RECURSIVE "
1139            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1140            else ""
1141        )
1142
1143        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1144
1145    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1146        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1147
1148        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1149        if materialized is False:
1150            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1151        elif materialized:
1152            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1153
1154        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1155
1156    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1157        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1158        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1159        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1160
1161        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1162            columns = ""
1163            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1164
1165        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1166            alias = self._next_name()
1167
1168        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1169
1170    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1171        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1172        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1173            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1174        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1175
1176    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1177        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1178        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1179            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1180        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1181
1182    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1183        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1184        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1185            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1186        return this
1187
1188    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1189        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1190        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1191
1192        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1193            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1194            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1195        else:
1196            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1197            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1198
1199        if escape:
1200            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1201            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1202        else:
1203            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1204            escape_sql = ""
1205
1206        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1207            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1208
1209        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1210
1211    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1212        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1213        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1214
1215    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1216        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1217        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1218        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1219        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1220
1221    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1222        nested = ""
1223        values = ""
1224        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1225
1226        type_value = expression.this
1227        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1228            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1229        elif type_value != exp.DataType.Type.NULLABLE or self.SUPPORTS_NULLABLE_TYPES:
1230            type_sql = (
1231                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1232                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1233                else type_value
1234            )
1235        else:
1236            return interior
1237
1238        if interior:
1239            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1240                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1241                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1242                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1243                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1244                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1245            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1246                nested = f" {interior}"
1247            else:
1248                nested = f"({interior})"
1249
1250        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1251        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1252            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1253            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1254        ):
1255            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1256
1257        return type_sql
1258
1259    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1260        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1261        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1262        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1263        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1264
1265    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1266        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1267        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1268        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1269        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1270        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1271        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1272        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1273        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1274        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1275        if self.RETURNING_END:
1276            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1277        else:
1278            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1279        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1280
1281    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1282        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1283        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1284        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1285        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1286        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1287        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1288        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1289        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1290        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1291        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1292        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1293        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1294        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1295        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1296
1297    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1298        return self.set_operations(expression)
1299
1300    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1301        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1302
1303    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1304        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1305        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1306        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1307        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1308        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1309            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1310        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1311        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1312
1313    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1314        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1315            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1316            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1317            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1318
1319        agg = expression.this
1320        agg_arg = agg.this
1321        cond = expression.expression.this
1322        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1323        return self.sql(agg)
1324
1325    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1326        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1327            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1328            return ""
1329
1330        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1331
1332    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1333        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1334        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1335        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1336        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1337        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1338        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1339        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1340        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1341        if include:
1342            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1343        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1344        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1345        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1346        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1347        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1348        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1349
1350        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1351
1352    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1353        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1354        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1355        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1356        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1357        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1358        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1359        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1360
1361        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1362
1363        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1364        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1365
1366    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1367        text = expression.name
1368        lower = text.lower()
1369        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1370        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1371        if (
1372            expression.quoted
1373            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1374            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1375            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1376        ):
1377            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1378        return text
1379
1380    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1381        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1382        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1383            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1384
1385        return text
1386
1387    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1388        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1389        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1390            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1391        return text
1392
1393    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1394        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1395        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1396        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1397        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1398        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1399
1400    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1401        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1402        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1403
1404    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1405        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1406
1407    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1408        root_properties = []
1409        with_properties = []
1410
1411        for p in expression.expressions:
1412            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1413            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1414                with_properties.append(p)
1415            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1416                root_properties.append(p)
1417
1418        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1419        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1420
1421        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1422            with_props = " " + with_props
1423
1424        return root_props + with_props
1425
1426    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1427        if properties.expressions:
1428            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1429        return ""
1430
1431    def properties(
1432        self,
1433        properties: exp.Properties,
1434        prefix: str = "",
1435        sep: str = ", ",
1436        suffix: str = "",
1437        wrapped: bool = True,
1438    ) -> str:
1439        if properties.expressions:
1440            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1441            if expressions:
1442                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1443                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1444        return ""
1445
1446    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1447        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1448
1449    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1450        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1451        for p in properties.expressions:
1452            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1453            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1454                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1455            else:
1456                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1457
1458        return properties_locs
1459
1460    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1461        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1462            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1463        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1464
1465    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1466        property_cls = expression.__class__
1467        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1468            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1469
1470        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1471        if not property_name:
1472            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1473
1474        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1475
1476    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1477        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1478            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1479            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1480
1481            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1482            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1483                like = f"({like})"
1484
1485            return like
1486
1487        if expression.expressions:
1488            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1489
1490        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1491        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1492
1493    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1494        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1495        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1496        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1497
1498    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1499        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1500        local = expression.args.get("local")
1501        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1502        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1503        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1504        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1505        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1506
1507    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1508        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1509        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1510        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1511
1512    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1513        if expression.args.get("default"):
1514            property = "DEFAULT"
1515        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1516            property = "ON"
1517        else:
1518            property = "OFF"
1519        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1520
1521    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1522        if expression.args.get("no"):
1523            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1524        if expression.args.get("default"):
1525            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1526
1527        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1528        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1529
1530    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1531        default = expression.args.get("default")
1532        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1533        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1534        if default or minimum or maximum:
1535            if default:
1536                prop = "DEFAULT"
1537            elif minimum:
1538                prop = "MINIMUM"
1539            else:
1540                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1541            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1542        units = expression.args.get("units")
1543        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1544        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1545
1546    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1547        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1548        always = expression.args.get("always")
1549        default = expression.args.get("default")
1550        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1551        never = expression.args.get("never")
1552
1553        if autotemp is not None:
1554            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1555        elif always:
1556            prop = "ALWAYS"
1557        elif default:
1558            prop = "DEFAULT"
1559        elif manual:
1560            prop = "MANUAL"
1561        elif never:
1562            prop = "NEVER"
1563        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1564
1565    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1566        no = expression.args.get("no")
1567        no = " NO" if no else ""
1568        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1569        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1570        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1571        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1572        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1573
1574    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1575        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1576            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1577        if expression.this:
1578            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1579            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1580            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1581
1582        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1583        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1584        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1585
1586    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1587        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1588
1589        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1590        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1591            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1592        else:
1593            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1594
1595        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1596
1597    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1598        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1599        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1600        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1601        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1602        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1603        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1604        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1605
1606    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1607        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1608        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1609        statistics_sql = ""
1610        if statistics is not None:
1611            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1612        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1613
1614    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1615        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1616        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1617        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1618        data_consistency = (
1619            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1620        )
1621        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1622        retention_period = (
1623            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1624        )
1625
1626        if this:
1627            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1628        else:
1629            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1630
1631        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1632
1633        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1634
1635    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1636        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1637        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1638
1639        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1640            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1641        else:
1642            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1643
1644        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1645        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1646        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1647        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1648        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1649        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1650        if is_function:
1651            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1652        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1653
1654        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1655        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1656        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1657        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1658        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1659        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1660        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1661        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1662
1663        if self.RETURNING_END:
1664            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1665        else:
1666            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1667
1668        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1669        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1670        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1671        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1672
1673        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1674        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1675
1676        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1677        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1678
1679    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1680        return self.set_operations(expression)
1681
1682    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1683        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1684
1685    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1686        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1687
1688    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1689        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1690        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1691        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1692        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1693        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1694
1695    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1696        return expression.name
1697
1698    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1699        return expression.name
1700
1701    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1702        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1703
1704        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1705        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1706
1707        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1708        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1709        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1710
1711        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1712        if expressions:
1713            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1714            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1715
1716        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1717
1718    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1719        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1720
1721    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1722        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1723        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1724        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1725        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1726        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1727        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1728        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1729        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1730        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1731        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1732        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1733        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1734        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1735
1736    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1737        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1738
1739    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1740        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1741        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1742        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1743        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1744
1745    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1746        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1747        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1748        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1749        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1750
1751    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1752        return ".".join(
1753            self.sql(part)
1754            for part in (
1755                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1756                expression.args.get("db"),
1757                expression.args.get("this"),
1758            )
1759            if part is not None
1760        )
1761
1762    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1763        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1764        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1765        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1766        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1767        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1768        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1769        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1770        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1771
1772        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1773        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1774            sample_pre_alias = sample
1775            sample_post_alias = ""
1776        else:
1777            sample_pre_alias = ""
1778            sample_post_alias = sample
1779
1780        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1781        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1782        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1783        joins = self.indent(
1784            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1785        )
1786        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1787
1788        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1789        if file_format:
1790            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1791            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1792            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1793
1794        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1795        if ordinality:
1796            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1797            alias = ""
1798
1799        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1800        if when:
1801            table = f"{table} {when}"
1802
1803        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1804        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1805
1806        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1807        if rows_from:
1808            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1809
1810        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1811
1812    def tablesample_sql(
1813        self,
1814        expression: exp.TableSample,
1815        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1816    ) -> str:
1817        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1818        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1819        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1820        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1821        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1822        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1823        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1824        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1825        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1826
1827        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1828        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1829            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1830
1831        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1832        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1833            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1834
1835        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1836        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1837            expr = f"({expr})"
1838
1839        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
1840
1841    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1842        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1843
1844        if expression.this:
1845            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1846            if not expressions:
1847                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1848
1849            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1850            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1851            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1852            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1853            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1854
1855        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1856        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1857        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1858
1859        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1860        if field and isinstance(expression.args.get("field"), exp.PivotAny):
1861            field = f"IN ({field})"
1862
1863        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1864        if include_nulls is not None:
1865            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1866        else:
1867            nulls = ""
1868
1869        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1870        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1871        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
1872
1873    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1874        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1875        kind = expression.text("kind")
1876        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1877        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1878
1879    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1880        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
1881
1882    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1883        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1884        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1885        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1886        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1887        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1888        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1889        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1890        if self.RETURNING_END:
1891            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1892        else:
1893            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1894        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1895        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1896
1897    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1898        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1899
1900        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1901        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1902            args = self.expressions(expression)
1903            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1904            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1905            values = (
1906                f"({values})"
1907                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1908                else values
1909            )
1910            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1911
1912        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1913        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1914        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1915
1916        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1917
1918        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1919            row = tup.expressions
1920
1921            if i == 0 and column_names:
1922                row = [
1923                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1924                ]
1925
1926            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1927
1928        if self.pretty:
1929            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1930            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1931            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1932            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1933            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1934
1935        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1936        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1937        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1938
1939    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1940        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1941
1942    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1943        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1944        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1945        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1946
1947    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1948        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1949
1950    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
1951        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
1952        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
1953
1954    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
1955        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
1956        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
1957
1958    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
1959        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
1960        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
1961
1962    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1963        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1964        if group_by_all is True:
1965            modifier = " ALL"
1966        elif group_by_all is False:
1967            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1968        else:
1969            modifier = ""
1970
1971        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1972
1973        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
1974        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
1975        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
1976
1977        groupings = csv(
1978            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
1979            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
1980            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
1981            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1982            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1983        )
1984
1985        if (
1986            expression.expressions
1987            and groupings
1988            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
1989        ):
1990            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1991
1992        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1993
1994    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1995        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1996        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1997
1998    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1999        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2000        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2001        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2002        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2003        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2004        return start + connect
2005
2006    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2007        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2008
2009    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2010        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2011            side = None
2012        else:
2013            side = expression.side
2014
2015        op_sql = " ".join(
2016            op
2017            for op in (
2018                expression.method,
2019                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2020                side,
2021                expression.kind,
2022                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2023            )
2024            if op
2025        )
2026        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2027        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2028        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2029        using = expression.args.get("using")
2030
2031        if not on_sql and using:
2032            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2033
2034        this = expression.this
2035        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2036
2037        if on_sql:
2038            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2039            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2040            if using:
2041                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2042            else:
2043                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2044        elif not op_sql:
2045            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2046                return f" {this_sql}"
2047
2048            return f", {this_sql}"
2049
2050        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2051            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2052
2053        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2054
2055    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2056        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2057        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2058        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2059
2060    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2061        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2062
2063        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2064        if cross_apply is True:
2065            op = "INNER JOIN "
2066        elif cross_apply is False:
2067            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2068        else:
2069            op = ""
2070
2071        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2072
2073    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2074        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2075
2076        if expression.args.get("view"):
2077            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2078            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2079            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2080            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2081            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2082            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2083
2084        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2085        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2086        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2087
2088    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2089        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2090
2091        args = [
2092            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2093            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2094            if e
2095        ]
2096
2097        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2098        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2099        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2100        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2101
2102        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2103
2104    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2105        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2106        value = expression.expression
2107        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2108        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2109        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2110        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2111
2112    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2113        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2114        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2115        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2116        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2117        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2118        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2119        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2120        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2121
2122    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2123        expressions = (
2124            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2125        )
2126        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2127        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2128
2129    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2130        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2131
2132    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2133        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2134            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2135            return ""
2136
2137        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2138        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2139        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2140        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2141
2142        if wait is not None:
2143            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2144                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2145            else:
2146                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2147
2148        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2149
2150    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2151        text = expression.this or ""
2152        if expression.is_string:
2153            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2154        return text
2155
2156    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2157        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2158            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2159            text = "".join(
2160                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2161            )
2162
2163        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2164            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2165        )
2166
2167    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2168        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2169        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2170        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2171        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2172        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2173        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2174        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2175        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2176        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2177        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2178        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2179
2180    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2181        return "NULL"
2182
2183    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2184        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2185
2186    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2187        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2188        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2189        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2190        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2191
2192    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2193        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2194        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2195        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2196        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2197        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2198        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2199        interpolated_values = [
2200            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2201            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2202        ]
2203        interpolate = (
2204            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2205        )
2206        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
2207
2208    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2209        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2210
2211    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2212        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2213
2214    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2215        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2216
2217    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2218        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2219        asc = not desc
2220
2221        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2222        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2223        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2224        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2225        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2226
2227        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2228
2229        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2230        nulls_sort_change = ""
2231        if nulls_first and (
2232            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2233        ):
2234            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2235        elif (
2236            nulls_last
2237            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2238            and not nulls_are_last
2239        ):
2240            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2241
2242        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2243        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2244            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2245            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2246                self.unsupported(
2247                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2248                )
2249                nulls_sort_change = ""
2250            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2251                if expression.this.is_int:
2252                    self.unsupported(
2253                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2254                    )
2255                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2256                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2257                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2258                nulls_sort_change = ""
2259
2260        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2261        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2262
2263        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2264
2265    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2266        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2267        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2268
2269        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2270
2271        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2272
2273    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2274        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2275        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2276        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2277        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2278        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2279        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2280        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2281        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2282        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2283        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2284        definition_sqls = [
2285            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2286            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2287        ]
2288        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2289        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2290        body = "".join(
2291            (
2292                partition,
2293                order,
2294                measures,
2295                rows,
2296                after,
2297                pattern,
2298                define,
2299            )
2300        )
2301        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2302        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2303        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2304
2305    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2306        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2307
2308        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2309            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2310        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2311            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2312
2313        return csv(
2314            *sqls,
2315            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2316            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2317            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2318            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2319            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2320            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2321            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2322            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2323            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2324            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2325            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2326            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2327            self.options_modifier(expression),
2328            sep="",
2329        )
2330
2331    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2332        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2333        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2334
2335    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2336        return ""
2337
2338    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2339        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2340    ) -> t.List[str]:
2341        return [
2342            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2343            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2344        ]
2345
2346    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2347        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2348        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2349        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2350
2351    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2352        into = expression.args.get("into")
2353        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2354            into.pop()
2355
2356        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2357        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2358        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2359        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2360
2361        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2362        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2363            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2364            limit.pop()
2365        else:
2366            top = ""
2367
2368        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2369
2370        if kind:
2371            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2372                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2373            else:
2374                if kind == "STRUCT":
2375                    expressions = self.expressions(
2376                        sqls=[
2377                            self.sql(
2378                                exp.Struct(
2379                                    expressions=[
2380                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2381                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2382                                        else e
2383                                        for e in expression.expressions
2384                                    ]
2385                                )
2386                            )
2387                        ]
2388                    )
2389                kind = ""
2390
2391        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2392        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2393        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2394        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2395        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2396            expression,
2397            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2398            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2399            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2400        )
2401
2402        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2403
2404        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2405            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2406                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2407            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2408                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2409            else:
2410                table_kind = ""
2411            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2412
2413        return sql
2414
2415    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2416        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2417        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2418        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2419
2420    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2421        if expression.expressions:
2422            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2423        return ""
2424
2425    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2426        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2427        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2428        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2429        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2430        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2431        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2432        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2433
2434    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2435        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2436        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2437
2438    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2439        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2440        kind = expression.text("kind")
2441        if kind:
2442            kind = f"{kind}."
2443        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2444
2445    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2446        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2447
2448    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2449        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2450        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2451        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2452        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2453            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2454
2455            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2456            expression.set("sample", None)
2457
2458        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2459        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2460        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2461
2462    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2463        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2464        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2465
2466    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2467        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2468            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2469            order = expression.args.get("order")
2470
2471            if limit or order:
2472                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2473
2474                if limit:
2475                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2476                if order:
2477                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2478                return self.sql(select)
2479
2480        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2481        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2482
2483        while stack:
2484            node = stack.pop()
2485
2486            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2487                stack.append(node.expression)
2488                stack.append(
2489                    self.maybe_comment(
2490                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2491                        comments=node.comments,
2492                        separated=True,
2493                    )
2494                )
2495                stack.append(node.this)
2496            else:
2497                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2498
2499        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2500        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2501        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2502
2503    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2504        return self.set_operations(expression)
2505
2506    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2507        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2508        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2509        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2510        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2511
2512    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2513        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2514
2515        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2516        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2517
2518        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2519            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2520                alias.append("columns", offset)
2521
2522        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2523            columns = alias.columns
2524            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2525        else:
2526            alias = self.sql(alias)
2527
2528        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2529        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2530            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2531        else:
2532            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2533                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2534            elif offset:
2535                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2536            else:
2537                suffix = alias
2538
2539        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2540
2541    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2542        return ""
2543
2544    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2545        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2546        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2547
2548    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2549        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2550        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2551        order = expression.args.get("order")
2552        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2553        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2554        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2555        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2556
2557        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2558
2559        first = expression.args.get("first")
2560        if first is None:
2561            first = ""
2562        else:
2563            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2564
2565        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2566            return f"{this} {alias}"
2567
2568        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2569        return f"{this} ({args})"
2570
2571    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2572        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2573        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2574
2575    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2576        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2577        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2578        end = (
2579            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2580            or "CURRENT ROW"
2581        )
2582        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2583
2584    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2585        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2586        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2587        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2588
2589    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2590        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2591        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2592        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2593        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2594
2595    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2596        return apply_index_offset(
2597            expression.this,
2598            expression.expressions,
2599            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2600        )
2601
2602    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2603        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2604        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2605        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2606
2607    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2608        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2609
2610    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2611        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2612        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2613            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2614                this = self.wrap(this)
2615            return f"ANY{this}"
2616        return f"ANY {this}"
2617
2618    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2619        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2620
2621    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2622        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2623        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2624
2625        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2626            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2627            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2628
2629        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2630
2631        if default:
2632            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2633
2634        statements.append("END")
2635
2636        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2637            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2638
2639        return " ".join(statements)
2640
2641    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2642        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2643        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2644        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2645
2646    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2647        order = expression.args.get("order")
2648        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2649        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2650
2651    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2652        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2653        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2654        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2655
2656    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2657        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2658
2659        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2660            func_name = "LTRIM"
2661        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2662            func_name = "RTRIM"
2663        else:
2664            func_name = "TRIM"
2665
2666        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
2667
2668    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2669        args = expression.expressions
2670        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2671            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2672
2673        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2674            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2675
2676        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2677            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2678
2679        return args
2680
2681    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2682        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2683
2684        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2685        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2686            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2687
2688        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2689
2690    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2691        return self.func(
2692            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2693        )
2694
2695    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2696        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2697        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2698
2699    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2700        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2701        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2702        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2703        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2704        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2705        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2706        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2707        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2708
2709    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2710        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2711        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2712        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2713        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2714
2715    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2716        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2717
2718    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2719        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2720        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2721        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2722
2723    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2724        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2725
2726    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2727        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2728        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2729            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2730
2731        return path
2732
2733    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2734        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2735            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2736            if not callable(transform):
2737                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2738                return ""
2739
2740            return transform(self, expression)
2741
2742        if isinstance(expression, int):
2743            return str(expression)
2744
2745        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2746            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2747            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2748        else:
2749            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2750            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2751
2752        return escaped
2753
2754    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2755        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2756
2757    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2758        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2759        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2760
2761        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2762        if unique_keys is not None:
2763            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2764        else:
2765            unique_keys = ""
2766
2767        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2768        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2769        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2770        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2771
2772        return self.func(
2773            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2774            *expression.expressions,
2775            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2776        )
2777
2778    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2779        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2780
2781    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2782        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2783        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2784        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2785        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2786        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2787        return self.func(
2788            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2789        )
2790
2791    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2792        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2793        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2794        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2795        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2796        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2797        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2798        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2799        return self.func(
2800            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2801            this,
2802            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2803        )
2804
2805    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2806        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2807        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2808        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2809
2810        if nested_schema:
2811            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2812
2813        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2814        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2815        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2816        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2817
2818    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2819        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2820
2821    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2822        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2823        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2824        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2825        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2826        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2827        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2828        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2829        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2830        return self.func(
2831            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2832        )
2833
2834    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2835        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2836        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2837        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2838        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2839        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2840        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2841
2842    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2843        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2844        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2845        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2846        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2847        with_ = (
2848            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2849            if expressions
2850            else ""
2851        )
2852        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2853
2854    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2855        query = expression.args.get("query")
2856        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2857        field = expression.args.get("field")
2858        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2859
2860        if query:
2861            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2862        elif unnest:
2863            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2864        elif field:
2865            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2866        else:
2867            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2868
2869        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2870
2871    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2872        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2873
2874    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2875        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2876        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2877            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2878        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2879
2880        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2881            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2882            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2883
2884        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2885        if this:
2886            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2887            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2888
2889        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2890
2891    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2892        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2893
2894    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2895        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2896        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2897        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2898        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2899        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2900        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2901
2902    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2903        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
2904        parent = expression.parent
2905        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
2906        return self.func(
2907            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
2908        )
2909
2910    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2911        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2912        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2913
2914    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2915        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2916        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2917        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2918        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2919
2920    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2921        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2922
2923    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2924        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2925        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2926        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2927
2928    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2929        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2930
2931        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2932        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
2933
2934        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2935            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2936        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2937            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2938
2939        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2940
2941    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2942        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2943
2944    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2945        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2946        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2947        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2948
2949    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2950        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2951        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2952        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2953
2954    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2955        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2956        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2957        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2958
2959    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2960        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2961
2962    def and_sql(
2963        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2964    ) -> str:
2965        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2966
2967    def or_sql(
2968        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2969    ) -> str:
2970        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2971
2972    def xor_sql(
2973        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2974    ) -> str:
2975        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2976
2977    def connector_sql(
2978        self,
2979        expression: exp.Connector,
2980        op: str,
2981        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2982    ) -> str:
2983        if stack is not None:
2984            if expression.expressions:
2985                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2986            else:
2987                stack.append(expression.right)
2988                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2989                    for comment in expression.comments:
2990                        if comment:
2991                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2992                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2993            return op
2994
2995        stack = [expression]
2996        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2997        ops = set()
2998
2999        while stack:
3000            node = stack.pop()
3001            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3002                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3003            else:
3004                sql = self.sql(node)
3005                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3006                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3007                else:
3008                    sqls.append(sql)
3009
3010        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3011        return sep.join(sqls)
3012
3013    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3014        return self.binary(expression, "&")
3015
3016    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3017        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
3018
3019    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3020        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3021
3022    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3023        return self.binary(expression, "|")
3024
3025    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3026        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
3027
3028    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3029        return self.binary(expression, "^")
3030
3031    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3032        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3033        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3034        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3035        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3036        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3037        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3038        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3039
3040    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3041        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3042        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3043
3044    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3045        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3046            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3047        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3048
3049    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3050        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3051
3052    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3053        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3054        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3055        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3056        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3057        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3058        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3059
3060    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3061        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3062        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3063        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3064        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3065        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3066        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3067        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3068        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3069        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3070
3071    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3072        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3073        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3074        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3075        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3076
3077        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3078            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3079
3080        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3081
3082    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3083        return "BEGIN"
3084
3085    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3086        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3087        if chain is not None:
3088            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3089
3090        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3091
3092    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3093        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3094        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3095        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3096
3097    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3098        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3099
3100        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3101        if dtype:
3102            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3103            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3104            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3105            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3106            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3107
3108        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3109        if default:
3110            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3111
3112        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3113        if comment:
3114            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3115
3116        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3117        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3118
3119        if not drop and not allow_null:
3120            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3121
3122        if allow_null is not None:
3123            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3124            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3125
3126        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3127
3128    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3129        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3130        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3131            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3132        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3133
3134    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3135        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3136        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3137        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3138        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3139        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3140
3141    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3142        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3143            # Remove db from tables
3144            expression = expression.transform(
3145                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3146            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3147        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3148        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3149
3150    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3151        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3152        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3153        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3154        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3155
3156    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3157        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3158        return f"SET {exprs}"
3159
3160    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3161        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3162
3163        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3164            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3165        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3166            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3167        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3168            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3169        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3170            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3171        else:
3172            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3173
3174        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3175        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3176        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3177        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3178        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3179        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3180        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3181        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
3182
3183    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3184        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3185            return self.expressions(
3186                expression,
3187                key="actions",
3188                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3189                skip_first=True,
3190            )
3191        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3192
3193    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3194        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3195        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3196        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3197
3198    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3199        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3200
3201    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3202        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3203
3204        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3205            case = exp.case()
3206            for arg in expression.expressions:
3207                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3208            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3209
3210        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3211
3212        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3213        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3214        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3215
3216    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3217        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3218
3219    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3220        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3221
3222    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3223        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3224        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3225        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3226        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3227
3228    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3229        return self.sql(
3230            exp.Cast(
3231                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3232                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3233            )
3234        )
3235
3236    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3237        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3238            return self.func(
3239                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3240            )
3241        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3242
3243    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3244        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3245
3246        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3247            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3248
3249        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3250            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3251                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3252
3253        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3254            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3255                return self.sql(
3256                    exp.cast(
3257                        l / r,
3258                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3259                    )
3260                )
3261
3262        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3263
3264    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3265        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3266
3267    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3268        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3269
3270    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3271        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3272
3273    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3274        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3275
3276    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3277        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3278
3279    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3280        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3281
3282    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3283        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3284
3285    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3286        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3287
3288    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3289        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3290
3291    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3292        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3293
3294    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3295        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3296
3297    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3298        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3299            return self.sql(
3300                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3301            )
3302        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3303
3304    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3305        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3306
3307    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3308        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3309
3310    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3311        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3312
3313    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3314        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3315
3316    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3317        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3318
3319    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3320        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3321
3322    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3323        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3324
3325    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3326        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3327
3328    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3329        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3330
3331    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3332        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3333
3334    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3335        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3336
3337    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3338        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3339
3340    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3341        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3342
3343    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3344        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3345            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3346            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3347
3348        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3349
3350    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3351        this = expression.this
3352        expr = expression.expression
3353
3354        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3355            this, expr = expr, this
3356        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3357            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3358                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3359
3360            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3361
3362        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3363
3364    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3365        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3366        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3367        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3368        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3369        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3370
3371    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3372        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3373        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3374        binary_type = type(expression)
3375
3376        while stack:
3377            node = stack.pop()
3378
3379            if type(node) is binary_type:
3380                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3381                if op_func:
3382                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3383
3384                stack.append(node.right)
3385                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3386                stack.append(node.left)
3387            else:
3388                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3389
3390        return "".join(sqls)
3391
3392    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3393        args = []
3394
3395        for key in expression.arg_types:
3396            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3397
3398            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3399                for value in arg_value:
3400                    args.append(value)
3401            elif arg_value is not None:
3402                args.append(arg_value)
3403
3404        if self.normalize_functions:
3405            name = expression.sql_name()
3406        else:
3407            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3408
3409        return self.func(name, *args)
3410
3411    def func(
3412        self,
3413        name: str,
3414        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3415        prefix: str = "(",
3416        suffix: str = ")",
3417        normalize: bool = True,
3418    ) -> str:
3419        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3420        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3421
3422    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3423        arg_sqls = tuple(
3424            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3425        )
3426        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3427            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3428        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3429
3430    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3431        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3432
3433    def format_time(
3434        self,
3435        expression: exp.Expression,
3436        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3437        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3438    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3439        return format_time(
3440            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3441            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3442            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3443        )
3444
3445    def expressions(
3446        self,
3447        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3448        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3449        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3450        flat: bool = False,
3451        indent: bool = True,
3452        skip_first: bool = False,
3453        skip_last: bool = False,
3454        sep: str = ", ",
3455        prefix: str = "",
3456        dynamic: bool = False,
3457        new_line: bool = False,
3458    ) -> str:
3459        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3460
3461        if not expressions:
3462            return ""
3463
3464        if flat:
3465            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3466
3467        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3468        result_sqls = []
3469
3470        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3471            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3472            if not sql:
3473                continue
3474
3475            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3476
3477            if self.pretty:
3478                if self.leading_comma:
3479                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3480                else:
3481                    result_sqls.append(
3482                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3483                    )
3484            else:
3485                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3486
3487        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3488            if new_line:
3489                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3490                result_sqls.append("")
3491            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3492        else:
3493            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3494        return (
3495            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3496            if indent
3497            else result_sql
3498        )
3499
3500    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3501        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3502        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3503        if flat:
3504            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3505        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3506
3507    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3508        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3509        if not property_name:
3510            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3511        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3512
3513    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3514        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3515
3516    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3517        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3518
3519    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3520        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3521        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3522        expressions = (
3523            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3524        )
3525        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3526
3527    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3528        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3529        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3530        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3531
3532    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3533        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3534
3535    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3536        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3537        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3538        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3539        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3540
3541        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3542        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3543            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3544            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3545            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3546            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3547        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3548            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3549                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3550            else:
3551                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3552        else:
3553            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3554        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3555
3556    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3557        table = expression.this
3558        table_alias = ""
3559
3560        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3561        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3562            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3563            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3564
3565        this = self.sql(table)
3566        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3567        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3568        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3569        sep = self.sep()
3570
3571        return self.prepend_ctes(
3572            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3573        )
3574
3575    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3576        if expression.args.get("format"):
3577            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3578
3579        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3580
3581    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3582        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3583            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3584            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3585
3586        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3587        if not fmt:
3588            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3589            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3590
3591        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3592
3593    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3594        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3595        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3596        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3597        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3598        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3599
3600    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3601        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3602        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3603        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3604        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3605
3606    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3607        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3608
3609    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3610        return ""
3611
3612    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3613        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3614        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3615        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3616        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3617        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3618
3619    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3620        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3621        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3622
3623        if having:
3624            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3625
3626        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3627
3628    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3629        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3630        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3631        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3632        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3633        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3634        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3635        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3636        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3637        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3638        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3639        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3640        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3641        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3642
3643    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3644        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3645        if key_block_size:
3646            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3647
3648        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3649        if using:
3650            return f"USING {using}"
3651
3652        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3653        if parser:
3654            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3655
3656        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3657        if comment:
3658            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3659
3660        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3661        if visible is not None:
3662            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3663
3664        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3665        if engine_attr:
3666            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3667
3668        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3669        if secondary_engine_attr:
3670            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3671
3672        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3673        return ""
3674
3675    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3676        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3677        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3678
3679    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3680        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3681        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3682        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3683        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3684        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3685        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3686        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3687        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3688        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3689        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3690        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3691
3692    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3693        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3694            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3695
3696        case = exp.Case().when(
3697            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3698            expression.args["true"],
3699            copy=False,
3700        )
3701        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3702        if else_cond:
3703            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3704
3705        return self.sql(case)
3706
3707    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3708        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3709        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3710        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3711        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3712        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3713        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3714
3715    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3716        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3717
3718    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3719        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3720
3721    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3722        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3723        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3724        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3725        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3726        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3727        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3728
3729    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3730        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3731        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3732        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3733
3734    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3735        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3736        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3737        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3738
3739    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3740        arg = expression.this
3741        if not arg.type:
3742            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3743
3744            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3745
3746        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3747            return self.sql(arg)
3748
3749        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3750        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3751
3752    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3753        this = expression.this
3754        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3755            return self.sql(this)
3756
3757        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3758
3759    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3760        this = expression.this
3761        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3762            return self.sql(this)
3763
3764        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3765
3766    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3767        this = expression.this
3768        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3769
3770        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3771            return self.sql(
3772                exp.cast(
3773                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3774                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3775                )
3776            )
3777
3778        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3779            return self.sql(this)
3780
3781        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3782
3783    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3784        return self.sql(
3785            exp.func(
3786                "DATEDIFF",
3787                expression.this,
3788                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3789                "day",
3790            )
3791        )
3792
3793    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3794        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3795            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3796
3797        unit = expression.text("unit")
3798        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3799            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3800
3801        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3802
3803    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3804        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3805
3806        return self.func(
3807            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3808        )
3809
3810    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3811        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3812            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3813            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3814            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3815            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3816
3817        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3818
3819        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3820        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3821            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3822
3823        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3824
3825    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3826        expression.set(
3827            "expressions",
3828            [
3829                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3830                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3831                else e
3832                for e in expression.expressions
3833            ],
3834        )
3835
3836        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3837
3838    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3839        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3840        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3841
3842        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3843
3844    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3845        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3846        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3847
3848        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3849
3850        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3851        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3852
3853        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3854        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3855
3856        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3857        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3858
3859        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3860        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3861
3862        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3863
3864    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3865    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3866    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3867        to = expression.this
3868        value = expression.expression
3869        style = expression.args.get("style")
3870        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3871        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3872
3873        if not to or not value:
3874            return ""
3875
3876        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3877        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3878            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3879
3880        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3881        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3882
3883        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3884        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3885            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3886
3887            style_value = style.name
3888            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3889            if not converted_style:
3890                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3891
3892            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3893
3894            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3895                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3896            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3897                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3898            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3899                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3900            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3901                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3902
3903        if not transformed:
3904            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3905
3906        return self.sql(transformed)
3907
3908    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3909        this = expression.this
3910        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3911            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3912            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3913
3914        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3915            return f".{this}"
3916
3917        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3918        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3919
3920    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3921        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3922        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3923
3924    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3925        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3926            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3927
3928            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3929
3930        return expression
3931
3932    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3933        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3934            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3935            mods = sorted(
3936                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3937                key=lambda x: 0
3938                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3939                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3940            )
3941
3942            if mods:
3943                mod = mods[0]
3944                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3945                this.meta["inline"] = True
3946                mod.this.replace(this)
3947                return self.sql(expression.this)
3948
3949            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3950
3951            if agg_func:
3952                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3953
3954        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3955
3956    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3957        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3958        if self.pretty:
3959            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3960        return string
3961
3962    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3963        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3964
3965        if expression.expressions:
3966            upper = option.upper()
3967
3968            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3969            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3970
3971            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3972            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3973            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3974            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3975
3976        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3977
3978        if not value:
3979            return option
3980
3981        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3982
3983        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3984
3985    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3986        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3987        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3988            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3989            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3990            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3991        else:
3992            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3993            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3994            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3995
3996        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3997        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3998
3999        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4000        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4001
4002        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4003        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4004
4005        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4006        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4007
4008        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
4009
4010    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4011        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4012        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4013
4014        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4015        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4016        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4017        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4018
4019        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4020        params = self.expressions(
4021            expression,
4022            key="params",
4023            sep=sep,
4024            new_line=True,
4025            skip_last=True,
4026            skip_first=True,
4027            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4028        )
4029
4030        if params:
4031            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4032                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4033            elif not self.pretty:
4034                params = f" {params}"
4035
4036        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
4037
4038    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4039        return ""
4040
4041    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4042        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4043        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4044        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4045        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4046        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4047
4048        if filter_col or retention_period:
4049            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4050
4051        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
4052
4053    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4054        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4055    ) -> str:
4056        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4057        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4058        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4059        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4060
4061    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4062        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4063        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4064        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4065
4066    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4067        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4068
4069    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4070        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4071        expr = expression.expression
4072
4073        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4074            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4075            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4076        else:
4077            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4078
4079        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4080
4081    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4082        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4083            return self.sql(expression.this)
4084
4085        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4086
4087    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4088        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4089        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4090
4091        if lower and upper:
4092            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4093        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4094
4095    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4096        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4097        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4098        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4099        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4100        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4101        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4102
4103        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4104
4105    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4106        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4107
4108        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4109        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4110            fill_pattern = "' '"
4111
4112        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4113
4114    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4115        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4116        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4117
4118    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4119        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4120
4121        parent = expression.parent
4122        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4123            parent = parent.parent
4124
4125        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4126            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4127
4128        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4129            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4130
4131        return self.sql(generate_series)
4132
4133    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4134        exprs = expression.expressions
4135        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4136            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4137        else:
4138            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4139
4140        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
4141
4142    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4143        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4144            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4145
4146        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4147        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4148        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4149
4150        if source_tz and timestamp:
4151            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4152                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4153            )
4154
4155        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4156
4157        return self.sql(expr)
4158
4159    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4160        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4161        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4162
4163        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4164
4165        if _with is None:
4166            with_sql = ""
4167        elif not _with:
4168            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4169        else:
4170            with_sql = " WITH"
4171
4172        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4173
4174        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
4175
4176    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4177        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4178            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4179
4180        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4181        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4182        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4183
4184        on_empty = expression.args.get("on_empty")
4185        on_empty = f" {_generate_on_options(on_empty)} ON EMPTY" if on_empty else ""
4186
4187        on_error = expression.args.get("on_error")
4188        on_error = f" {_generate_on_options(on_error)} ON ERROR" if on_error else ""
4189
4190        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_empty}{on_error}")

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level. Default: 2.
  • indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of subqueries and filters under a WHERE clause. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
590    def __init__(
591        self,
592        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
593        identify: str | bool = False,
594        normalize: bool = False,
595        pad: int = 2,
596        indent: int = 2,
597        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
598        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
599        max_unsupported: int = 3,
600        leading_comma: bool = False,
601        max_text_width: int = 80,
602        comments: bool = True,
603        dialect: DialectType = None,
604    ):
605        import sqlglot
606        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
607
608        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
609        self.identify = identify
610        self.normalize = normalize
611        self.pad = pad
612        self._indent = indent
613        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
614        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
615        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
616        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
617        self.comments = comments
618        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
619
620        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
621        self.normalize_functions = (
622            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
623        )
624
625        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
626        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
627            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
628        )
629        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
630            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
631        )
632
633        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ConnectByRoot'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EmptyProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EphemeralColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Operator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PivotAny'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Stream'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StreamingTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TagColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
TRY_SUPPORTED = True
SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
STAR_EXCEPT = 'EXCEPT'
HEX_FUNC = 'HEX'
WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = 'WITH'
QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE = False
SUPPORTS_NULLABLE_TYPES = True
PARSE_JSON_NAME: Optional[str] = 'PARSE_JSON'
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET', <Type.ROWVERSION: 'ROWVERSION'>: 'VARBINARY'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EmptyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StreamingTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>, <Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>, <Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>, <Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
635    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
636        """
637        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
638
639        Args:
640            expression: The syntax tree.
641            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
642                it is safer to copy.
643
644        Returns:
645            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
646        """
647        if copy:
648            expression = expression.copy()
649
650        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
651
652        self.unsupported_messages = []
653        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
654
655        if self.pretty:
656            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
657
658        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
659            return sql
660
661        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
662            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
663                logger.warning(msg)
664        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
665            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
666
667        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
669    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
670        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
671        if (
672            not expression.parent
673            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
674            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
675        ):
676            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
677
678            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
679
680        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
681            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
682
683            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
684
685        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
687    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
688        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
689            raise UnsupportedError(message)
690        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
692    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
693        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
695    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
696        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
698    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
699        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
700        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
701        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None, separated: bool = False) -> str:
703    def maybe_comment(
704        self,
705        sql: str,
706        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
707        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
708        separated: bool = False,
709    ) -> str:
710        comments = (
711            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
712            if self.comments
713            else None
714        )
715
716        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
717            return sql
718
719        comments_sql = " ".join(
720            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
721        )
722
723        if not comments_sql:
724            return sql
725
726        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
727
728        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
729            return (
730                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
731                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
732                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
733            )
734
735        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
737    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
738        this_sql = (
739            self.sql(expression)
740            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
741            else self.sql(expression, "this")
742        )
743        if not this_sql:
744            return "()"
745
746        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
747        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
749    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
750        original = self.identify
751        self.identify = False
752        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
753        self.identify = original
754        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
756    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
757        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
758            return name.upper()
759        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
760            return name.lower()
761        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
763    def indent(
764        self,
765        sql: str,
766        level: int = 0,
767        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
768        skip_first: bool = False,
769        skip_last: bool = False,
770    ) -> str:
771        if not self.pretty or not sql:
772            return sql
773
774        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
775        lines = sql.split("\n")
776
777        return "\n".join(
778            (
779                line
780                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
781                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
782            )
783            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
784        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
786    def sql(
787        self,
788        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
789        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
790        comment: bool = True,
791    ) -> str:
792        if not expression:
793            return ""
794
795        if isinstance(expression, str):
796            return expression
797
798        if key:
799            value = expression.args.get(key)
800            if value:
801                return self.sql(value)
802            return ""
803
804        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
805
806        if callable(transform):
807            sql = transform(self, expression)
808        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
809            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
810
811            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
812                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
813            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
814                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
815            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
816                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
817            else:
818                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
819        else:
820            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
821
822        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
824    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
825        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
826        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
827        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
829    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
830        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
831        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
832        options = expression.args.get("options")
833        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
834        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
835        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
836        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
837        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
839    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
840        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
841            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
842        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
843        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
845    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
846        return ".".join(
847            self.sql(part)
848            for part in (
849                expression.args.get("catalog"),
850                expression.args.get("db"),
851                expression.args.get("table"),
852                expression.args.get("this"),
853            )
854            if part
855        )
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
857    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
858        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
859
860        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
861            join_mark = ""
862            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
863
864        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
866    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
867        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
868        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
869        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
870        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
872    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
873        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
874        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
875        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
876        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
877        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
878        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
879        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
880        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
881
882        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
883            kind = ""
884
885        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
887    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
888        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
889        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
890        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
892    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
893        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
894        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
895            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
896        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
897            persisted = " PERSISTED"
898        else:
899            persisted = ""
900        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
902    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
903        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
905    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
906        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
907            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
908        else:
909            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
910
911        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
913    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
914        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
915    ) -> str:
916        this = ""
917        if expression.this is not None:
918            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
919            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
920
921        start = expression.args.get("start")
922        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
923        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
924        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
925        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
926        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
927        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
928        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
929        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
930        cycle_sql = ""
931
932        if cycle is not None:
933            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
934            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
935
936        sequence_opts = ""
937        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
938            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
939            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
940
941        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
942        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
943
944        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
946    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
947        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
948    ) -> str:
949        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
950        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
951        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
953    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
954        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
955    ) -> str:
956        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
958    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
959        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
961    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
962        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
964    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
965        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
966        if desc is not None:
967            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
968        return "PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
970    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
971        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
972        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
973        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
974        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
975        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
976        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
977        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
978        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
980    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
981        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
 983    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 984        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 985        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
 986        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 987        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 988
 989        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 990
 991        properties_sql = ""
 992        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 993            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 994        ):
 995            properties_sql = self.sql(
 996                exp.Properties(
 997                    expressions=[
 998                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 999                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
1000                    ]
1001                )
1002            )
1003
1004            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
1005                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
1006            elif not self.pretty:
1007                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
1008                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
1009
1010        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
1011        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
1012
1013        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1014        if expression_sql:
1015            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1016
1017            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1018                postalias_props_sql = ""
1019                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1020                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1021                        exp.Properties(
1022                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1023                        ),
1024                        wrapped=False,
1025                    )
1026                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1027                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1028
1029        postindex_props_sql = ""
1030        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1031            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1032                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1033                wrapped=False,
1034                prefix=" ",
1035            )
1036
1037        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1038        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1039        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1040
1041        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1042        refresh = " OR REFRESH" if expression.args.get("refresh") else ""
1043        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1044
1045        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1046        if clustered is None:
1047            clustered_sql = ""
1048        elif clustered:
1049            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1050        else:
1051            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1052
1053        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1054        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1055            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1056                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1057                sep=" ",
1058                prefix=" ",
1059                wrapped=False,
1060            )
1061
1062        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, refresh, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1063
1064        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1065        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1066            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1067                exp.Properties(
1068                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1069                ),
1070                sep=" ",
1071                prefix=" ",
1072                wrapped=False,
1073            )
1074
1075        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1076        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1077        no_schema_binding = (
1078            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1079        )
1080
1081        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1082        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1083
1084        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1085        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1087    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1088        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1089        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1090        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1091        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1092        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1093        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1094        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1095        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1096        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1097        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1098
1099        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1100        if cache is None:
1101            cache_str = ""
1102        elif cache is True:
1103            cache_str = " CACHE"
1104        else:
1105            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1106
1107        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1108        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1109
1110        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
1112    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1113        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1114        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1115        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1116        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
1118    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1119        style = expression.args.get("style")
1120        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1121        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1122        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1123        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{partition}"
def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str:
1125    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1126        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1127        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1129    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1130        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1131        if with_:
1132            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1133        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
1135    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1136        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1137        recursive = (
1138            "RECURSIVE "
1139            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1140            else ""
1141        )
1142
1143        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
1145    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1146        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1147
1148        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1149        if materialized is False:
1150            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1151        elif materialized:
1152            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1153
1154        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
1156    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1157        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1158        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1159        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1160
1161        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1162            columns = ""
1163            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1164
1165        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1166            alias = self._next_name()
1167
1168        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
1170    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1171        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1172        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1173            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1174        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
1176    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1177        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1178        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1179            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1180        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
1182    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1183        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1184        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1185            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1186        return this
def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str:
1188    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1189        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1190        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1191
1192        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1193            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1194            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1195        else:
1196            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1197            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1198
1199        if escape:
1200            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1201            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1202        else:
1203            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1204            escape_sql = ""
1205
1206        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1207            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1208
1209        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
1211    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1212        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1213        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1215    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1216        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1217        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1218        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1219        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
1221    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1222        nested = ""
1223        values = ""
1224        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1225
1226        type_value = expression.this
1227        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1228            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1229        elif type_value != exp.DataType.Type.NULLABLE or self.SUPPORTS_NULLABLE_TYPES:
1230            type_sql = (
1231                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1232                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1233                else type_value
1234            )
1235        else:
1236            return interior
1237
1238        if interior:
1239            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1240                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1241                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1242                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1243                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1244                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1245            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1246                nested = f" {interior}"
1247            else:
1248                nested = f"({interior})"
1249
1250        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1251        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1252            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1253            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1254        ):
1255            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1256
1257        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
1259    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1260        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1261        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1262        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1263        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
1265    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1266        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1267        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1268        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1269        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1270        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1271        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1272        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1273        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1274        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1275        if self.RETURNING_END:
1276            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1277        else:
1278            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1279        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1281    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1282        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1283        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1284        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1285        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1286        kind = self.dialect.INVERSE_CREATABLE_KIND_MAPPING.get(kind) or kind
1287        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1288        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1289        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1290        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1291        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1292        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1293        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1294        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1295        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1297    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1298        return self.set_operations(expression)
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1300    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1301        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1303    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1304        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1305        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1306        count = self.sql(expression, "count")
1307        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1308        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1309            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1310        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1311        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1313    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1314        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1315            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1316            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1317            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1318
1319        agg = expression.this
1320        agg_arg = agg.this
1321        cond = expression.expression.this
1322        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1323        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1325    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1326        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1327            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1328            return ""
1329
1330        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters) -> str:
1332    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1333        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1334        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1335        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1336        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1337        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1338        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1339        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1340        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1341        if include:
1342            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1343        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1344        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1345        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1346        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1347        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1348        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1349
1350        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1352    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1353        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1354        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1355        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1356        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1357        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1358        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1359        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1360
1361        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1362
1363        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1364        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1366    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1367        text = expression.name
1368        lower = text.lower()
1369        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1370        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1371        if (
1372            expression.quoted
1373            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1374            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1375            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1376        ):
1377            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1378        return text
def hex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hex) -> str:
1380    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1381        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1382        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1383            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1384
1385        return text
def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LowerHex) -> str:
1387    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1388        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1389        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1390            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1391        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1393    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1394        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1395        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1396        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1397        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1398        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1400    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1401        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1402        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1404    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1405        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1407    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1408        root_properties = []
1409        with_properties = []
1410
1411        for p in expression.expressions:
1412            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1413            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1414                with_properties.append(p)
1415            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1416                root_properties.append(p)
1417
1418        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1419        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1420
1421        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1422            with_props = " " + with_props
1423
1424        return root_props + with_props
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1426    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1427        if properties.expressions:
1428            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1429        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1431    def properties(
1432        self,
1433        properties: exp.Properties,
1434        prefix: str = "",
1435        sep: str = ", ",
1436        suffix: str = "",
1437        wrapped: bool = True,
1438    ) -> str:
1439        if properties.expressions:
1440            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1441            if expressions:
1442                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1443                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1444        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1446    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1447        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1449    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1450        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1451        for p in properties.expressions:
1452            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1453            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1454                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1455            else:
1456                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1457
1458        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1460    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1461        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1462            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1463        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1465    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1466        property_cls = expression.__class__
1467        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1468            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1469
1470        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1471        if not property_name:
1472            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1473
1474        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1476    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1477        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1478            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1479            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1480
1481            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1482            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1483                like = f"({like})"
1484
1485            return like
1486
1487        if expression.expressions:
1488            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1489
1490        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1491        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1493    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1494        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1495        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1496        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1498    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1499        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1500        local = expression.args.get("local")
1501        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1502        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1503        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1504        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1505        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1507    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1508        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1509        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1510        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1512    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1513        if expression.args.get("default"):
1514            property = "DEFAULT"
1515        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1516            property = "ON"
1517        else:
1518            property = "OFF"
1519        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1521    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1522        if expression.args.get("no"):
1523            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1524        if expression.args.get("default"):
1525            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1526
1527        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1528        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1530    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1531        default = expression.args.get("default")
1532        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1533        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1534        if default or minimum or maximum:
1535            if default:
1536                prop = "DEFAULT"
1537            elif minimum:
1538                prop = "MINIMUM"
1539            else:
1540                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1541            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1542        units = expression.args.get("units")
1543        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1544        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1546    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1547        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1548        always = expression.args.get("always")
1549        default = expression.args.get("default")
1550        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1551        never = expression.args.get("never")
1552
1553        if autotemp is not None:
1554            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1555        elif always:
1556            prop = "ALWAYS"
1557        elif default:
1558            prop = "DEFAULT"
1559        elif manual:
1560            prop = "MANUAL"
1561        elif never:
1562            prop = "NEVER"
1563        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1565    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1566        no = expression.args.get("no")
1567        no = " NO" if no else ""
1568        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1569        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1570        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1571        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1572        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1574    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1575        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1576            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1577        if expression.this:
1578            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1579            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1580            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1581
1582        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1583        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1584        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1586    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1587        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1588
1589        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1590        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1591            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1592        else:
1593            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1594
1595        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1597    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1598        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1599        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1600        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1601        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1602        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1603        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1604        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1606    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1607        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1608        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1609        statistics_sql = ""
1610        if statistics is not None:
1611            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1612        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1614    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1615        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1616        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1617        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1618        data_consistency = (
1619            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1620        )
1621        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1622        retention_period = (
1623            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1624        )
1625
1626        if this:
1627            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1628        else:
1629            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1630
1631        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1632
1633        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1635    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1636        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1637        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1638
1639        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1640            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1641        else:
1642            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1643
1644        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1645        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1646        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1647        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1648        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1649        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1650        if is_function:
1651            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1652        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1653
1654        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1655        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1656        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1657        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1658        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1659        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1660        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1661        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1662
1663        if self.RETURNING_END:
1664            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1665        else:
1666            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1667
1668        partition_by = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1669        partition_by = f" {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1670        settings = self.sql(expression, "settings")
1671        settings = f" {settings}" if settings else ""
1672
1673        source = self.sql(expression, "source")
1674        source = f"TABLE {source}" if source else ""
1675
1676        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{partition_by}{settings}{where}{expression_sql}{source}"
1677        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1679    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1680        return self.set_operations(expression)
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1682    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1683        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1685    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1686        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1688    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1689        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1690        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1691        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1692        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1693        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1695    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1696        return expression.name
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1698    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1699        return expression.name
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1701    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1702        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1703
1704        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1705        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1706
1707        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1708        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1709        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1710
1711        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1712        if expressions:
1713            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1714            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1715
1716        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1718    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1719        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1721    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1722        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1723        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1724        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1725        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1726        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1727        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1728        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1729        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1730        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1731        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1732        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1733        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1734        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1736    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1737        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1739    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1740        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1741        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1742        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1743        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str:
1745    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1746        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1747        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1748        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1749        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table) -> str:
1751    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1752        return ".".join(
1753            self.sql(part)
1754            for part in (
1755                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1756                expression.args.get("db"),
1757                expression.args.get("this"),
1758            )
1759            if part is not None
1760        )
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1762    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1763        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1764        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1765        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1766        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1767        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1768        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1769        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1770        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1771
1772        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
1773        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE:
1774            sample_pre_alias = sample
1775            sample_post_alias = ""
1776        else:
1777            sample_pre_alias = ""
1778            sample_post_alias = sample
1779
1780        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1781        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1782        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1783        joins = self.indent(
1784            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1785        )
1786        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1787
1788        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1789        if file_format:
1790            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1791            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1792            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1793
1794        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1795        if ordinality:
1796            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1797            alias = ""
1798
1799        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1800        if when:
1801            table = f"{table} {when}"
1802
1803        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1804        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1805
1806        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1807        if rows_from:
1808            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1809
1810        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{sample_pre_alias}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{sample_post_alias}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
1812    def tablesample_sql(
1813        self,
1814        expression: exp.TableSample,
1815        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1816    ) -> str:
1817        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1818        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1819        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1820        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1821        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1822        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1823        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1824        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1825        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1826
1827        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1828        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1829            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1830
1831        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1832        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1833            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1834
1835        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1836        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1837            expr = f"({expr})"
1838
1839        return f" {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}"
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1841    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1842        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1843
1844        if expression.this:
1845            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1846            if not expressions:
1847                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1848
1849            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1850            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1851            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1852            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1853            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1854
1855        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1856        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1857        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1858
1859        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1860        if field and isinstance(expression.args.get("field"), exp.PivotAny):
1861            field = f"IN ({field})"
1862
1863        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1864        if include_nulls is not None:
1865            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1866        else:
1867            nulls = ""
1868
1869        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1870        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1871        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1873    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1874        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1875        kind = expression.text("kind")
1876        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1877        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1879    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1880        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1882    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1883        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1884        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1885        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1886        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1887        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1888        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1889        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1890        if self.RETURNING_END:
1891            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1892        else:
1893            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1894        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1895        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1897    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1898        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1899
1900        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1901        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1902            args = self.expressions(expression)
1903            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1904            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1905            values = (
1906                f"({values})"
1907                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1908                else values
1909            )
1910            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1911
1912        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1913        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1914        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1915
1916        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1917
1918        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1919            row = tup.expressions
1920
1921            if i == 0 and column_names:
1922                row = [
1923                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1924                ]
1925
1926            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1927
1928        if self.pretty:
1929            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1930            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1931            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1932            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1933            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1934
1935        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1936        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1937        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1939    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1940        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1942    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1943        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1944        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1945        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1947    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1948        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GroupingSets) -> str:
1950    def groupingsets_sql(self, expression: exp.GroupingSets) -> str:
1951        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
1952        return f"GROUPING SETS {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}"
def rollup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollup) -> str:
1954    def rollup_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollup) -> str:
1955        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
1956        return f"ROLLUP {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH ROLLUP"
def cube_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cube) -> str:
1958    def cube_sql(self, expression: exp.Cube) -> str:
1959        expressions = self.expressions(expression, indent=False)
1960        return f"CUBE {self.wrap(expressions)}" if expressions else "WITH CUBE"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1962    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1963        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1964        if group_by_all is True:
1965            modifier = " ALL"
1966        elif group_by_all is False:
1967            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1968        else:
1969            modifier = ""
1970
1971        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1972
1973        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets")
1974        cube = self.expressions(expression, key="cube")
1975        rollup = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup")
1976
1977        groupings = csv(
1978            self.seg(grouping_sets) if grouping_sets else "",
1979            self.seg(cube) if cube else "",
1980            self.seg(rollup) if rollup else "",
1981            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1982            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1983        )
1984
1985        if (
1986            expression.expressions
1987            and groupings
1988            and groupings.strip() not in ("WITH CUBE", "WITH ROLLUP")
1989        ):
1990            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1991
1992        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1994    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1995        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1996        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1998    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1999        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
2000        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
2001        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
2002        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
2003        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
2004        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
2006    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
2007        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
2009    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
2010        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
2011            side = None
2012        else:
2013            side = expression.side
2014
2015        op_sql = " ".join(
2016            op
2017            for op in (
2018                expression.method,
2019                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
2020                side,
2021                expression.kind,
2022                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
2023            )
2024            if op
2025        )
2026        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2027        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2028        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2029        using = expression.args.get("using")
2030
2031        if not on_sql and using:
2032            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2033
2034        this = expression.this
2035        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2036
2037        if on_sql:
2038            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2039            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2040            if using:
2041                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2042            else:
2043                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2044        elif not op_sql:
2045            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2046                return f" {this_sql}"
2047
2048            return f", {this_sql}"
2049
2050        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2051            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2052
2053        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
2055    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2056        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2057        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2058        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2060    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2061        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2062
2063        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2064        if cross_apply is True:
2065            op = "INNER JOIN "
2066        elif cross_apply is False:
2067            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2068        else:
2069            op = ""
2070
2071        return f"{op}LATERAL"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2073    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2074        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2075
2076        if expression.args.get("view"):
2077            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2078            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2079            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2080            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2081            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2082            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2083
2084        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2085        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2086        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2088    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2089        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2090
2091        args = [
2092            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2093            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2094            if e
2095        ]
2096
2097        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2098        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2099        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2100        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2101
2102        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
2104    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2105        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2106        value = expression.expression
2107        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2108        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2109        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2110        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
2112    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2113        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2114        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2115        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2116        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2117        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2118        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2119        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2120        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
2122    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2123        expressions = (
2124            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2125        )
2126        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2127        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
2129    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2130        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
2132    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2133        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2134            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2135            return ""
2136
2137        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2138        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2139        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2140        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2141
2142        if wait is not None:
2143            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2144                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2145            else:
2146                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2147
2148        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
2150    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2151        text = expression.this or ""
2152        if expression.is_string:
2153            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2154        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2156    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2157        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2158            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2159            text = "".join(
2160                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2161            )
2162
2163        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2164            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2165        )
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
2167    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2168        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2169        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2170        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2171        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2172        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2173        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2174        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2175        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2176        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2177        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2178        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2180    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2181        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
2183    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2184        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2186    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2187        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2188        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2189        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2190        return self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str:
2192    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2193        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2194        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2195        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2196        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2197        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2198        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2199        interpolated_values = [
2200            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2201            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2202        ]
2203        interpolate = (
2204            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2205        )
2206        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}{interpolate}"
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
2208    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2209        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
2211    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2212        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
2214    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2215        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
2217    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2218        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2219        asc = not desc
2220
2221        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2222        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2223        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2224        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2225        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2226
2227        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2228
2229        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2230        nulls_sort_change = ""
2231        if nulls_first and (
2232            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2233        ):
2234            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2235        elif (
2236            nulls_last
2237            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2238            and not nulls_are_last
2239        ):
2240            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2241
2242        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2243        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2244            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2245            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2246                self.unsupported(
2247                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2248                )
2249                nulls_sort_change = ""
2250            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2251                if expression.this.is_int:
2252                    self.unsupported(
2253                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2254                    )
2255                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2256                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2257                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2258                nulls_sort_change = ""
2259
2260        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2261        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2262
2263        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2265    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2266        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2267        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2268
2269        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2270
2271        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2273    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2274        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2275        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2276        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2277        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2278        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2279        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2280        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2281        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2282        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2283        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2284        definition_sqls = [
2285            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2286            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2287        ]
2288        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2289        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2290        body = "".join(
2291            (
2292                partition,
2293                order,
2294                measures,
2295                rows,
2296                after,
2297                pattern,
2298                define,
2299            )
2300        )
2301        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2302        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2303        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2305    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2306        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2307
2308        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2309            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2310        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2311            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2312
2313        return csv(
2314            *sqls,
2315            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2316            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2317            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2318            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2319            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2320            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2321            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2322            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2323            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2324            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2325            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2326            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2327            self.options_modifier(expression),
2328            sep="",
2329        )
def options_modifier(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> str:
2331    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2332        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2333        return f" {options}" if options else ""
def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption) -> str:
2335    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2336        return ""
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
2338    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2339        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2340    ) -> t.List[str]:
2341        return [
2342            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2343            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2344        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
2346    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2347        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2348        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2349        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
2351    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2352        into = expression.args.get("into")
2353        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2354            into.pop()
2355
2356        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2357        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2358        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2359        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2360
2361        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2362        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2363            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2364            limit.pop()
2365        else:
2366            top = ""
2367
2368        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2369
2370        if kind:
2371            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2372                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2373            else:
2374                if kind == "STRUCT":
2375                    expressions = self.expressions(
2376                        sqls=[
2377                            self.sql(
2378                                exp.Struct(
2379                                    expressions=[
2380                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2381                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2382                                        else e
2383                                        for e in expression.expressions
2384                                    ]
2385                                )
2386                            )
2387                        ]
2388                    )
2389                kind = ""
2390
2391        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2392        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2393        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2394        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2395        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2396            expression,
2397            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2398            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2399            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2400        )
2401
2402        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2403
2404        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2405            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2406                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2407            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2408                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2409            else:
2410                table_kind = ""
2411            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2412
2413        return sql
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2415    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2416        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2417        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2418        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2420    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2421        if expression.expressions:
2422            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2423        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
2425    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2426        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2427        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2428        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2429        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2430        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2431        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2432        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2434    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2435        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2436        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2438    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2439        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2440        kind = expression.text("kind")
2441        if kind:
2442            kind = f"{kind}."
2443        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2445    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2446        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2448    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2449        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2450        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2451        sample = self.sql(expression, "sample")
2452        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and sample:
2453            alias = f"{sample}{alias}"
2454
2455            # Set to None so it's not generated again by self.query_modifiers()
2456            expression.set("sample", None)
2457
2458        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2459        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2460        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2462    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2463        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2464        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
2466    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2467        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2468            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2469            order = expression.args.get("order")
2470
2471            if limit or order:
2472                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2473
2474                if limit:
2475                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2476                if order:
2477                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2478                return self.sql(select)
2479
2480        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2481        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2482
2483        while stack:
2484            node = stack.pop()
2485
2486            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2487                stack.append(node.expression)
2488                stack.append(
2489                    self.maybe_comment(
2490                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2491                        comments=node.comments,
2492                        separated=True,
2493                    )
2494                )
2495                stack.append(node.this)
2496            else:
2497                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2498
2499        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2500        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2501        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2503    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2504        return self.set_operations(expression)
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
2506    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2507        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2508        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2509        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2510        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2512    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2513        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2514
2515        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2516        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2517
2518        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2519            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2520                alias.append("columns", offset)
2521
2522        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2523            columns = alias.columns
2524            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2525        else:
2526            alias = self.sql(alias)
2527
2528        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2529        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2530            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2531        else:
2532            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2533                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2534            elif offset:
2535                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2536            else:
2537                suffix = alias
2538
2539        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere) -> str:
2541    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2542        return ""
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2544    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2545        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2546        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2548    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2549        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2550        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2551        order = expression.args.get("order")
2552        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2553        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2554        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2555        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2556
2557        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2558
2559        first = expression.args.get("first")
2560        if first is None:
2561            first = ""
2562        else:
2563            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2564
2565        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2566            return f"{this} {alias}"
2567
2568        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2569        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2571    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2572        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2573        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2575    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2576        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2577        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2578        end = (
2579            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2580            or "CURRENT ROW"
2581        )
2582        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2584    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2585        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2586        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2587        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2589    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2590        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2591        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2592        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2593        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_offset_expressions( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2595    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2596        return apply_index_offset(
2597            expression.this,
2598            expression.expressions,
2599            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2600        )
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2602    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2603        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2604        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2605        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2607    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2608        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2610    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2611        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2612        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2613            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2614                this = self.wrap(this)
2615            return f"ANY{this}"
2616        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2618    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2619        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2621    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2622        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2623        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2624
2625        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2626            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2627            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2628
2629        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2630
2631        if default:
2632            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2633
2634        statements.append("END")
2635
2636        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2637            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2638
2639        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2641    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2642        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2643        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2644        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2646    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2647        order = expression.args.get("order")
2648        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2649        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2651    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2652        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2653        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2654        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2656    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2657        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2658
2659        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2660            func_name = "LTRIM"
2661        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2662            func_name = "RTRIM"
2663        else:
2664            func_name = "TRIM"
2665
2666        return self.func(func_name, expression.this, expression.expression)
def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2668    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2669        args = expression.expressions
2670        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2671            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2672
2673        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2674            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2675
2676        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2677            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2678
2679        return args
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2681    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2682        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2683
2684        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2685        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2686            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2687
2688        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str:
2690    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2691        return self.func(
2692            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2693        )
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2695    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2696        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2697        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2699    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2700        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2701        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2702        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2703        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2704        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2705        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2706        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2707        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2709    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2710        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2711        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2712        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2713        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2715    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2716        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2718    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2719        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2720        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2721        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2723    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2724        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath) -> str:
2726    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2727        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2728        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2729            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2730
2731        return path
def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2733    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2734        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2735            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2736            if not callable(transform):
2737                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2738                return ""
2739
2740            return transform(self, expression)
2741
2742        if isinstance(expression, int):
2743            return str(expression)
2744
2745        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2746            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2747            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2748        else:
2749            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2750            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2751
2752        return escaped
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2754    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2755        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2757    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2758        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2759        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2760
2761        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2762        if unique_keys is not None:
2763            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2764        else:
2765            unique_keys = ""
2766
2767        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2768        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2769        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2770        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2771
2772        return self.func(
2773            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2774            *expression.expressions,
2775            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2776        )
def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2778    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2779        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2781    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2782        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2783        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2784        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2785        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2786        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2787        return self.func(
2788            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2789        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2791    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2792        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2793        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2794        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2795        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2796        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2797        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2798        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2799        return self.func(
2800            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2801            this,
2802            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2803        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2805    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2806        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2807        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2808        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2809
2810        if nested_schema:
2811            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2812
2813        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2814        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2815        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2816        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2818    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2819        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2821    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2822        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2823        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2824        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2825        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2826        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2827        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2828        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2829        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2830        return self.func(
2831            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2832        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2834    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2835        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2836        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2837        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2838        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2839        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2840        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2842    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2843        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2844        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2845        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2846        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2847        with_ = (
2848            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2849            if expressions
2850            else ""
2851        )
2852        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2854    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2855        query = expression.args.get("query")
2856        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2857        field = expression.args.get("field")
2858        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2859
2860        if query:
2861            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2862        elif unnest:
2863            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2864        elif field:
2865            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2866        else:
2867            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2868
2869        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2871    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2872        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2874    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2875        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2876        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2877            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2878        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2879
2880        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2881            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2882            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2883
2884        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2885        if this:
2886            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2887            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2888
2889        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2891    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2892        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2894    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2895        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2896        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2897        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2898        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2899        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2900        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2902    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2903        # We don't normalize qualified functions such as a.b.foo(), because they can be case-sensitive
2904        parent = expression.parent
2905        is_qualified = isinstance(parent, exp.Dot) and expression is parent.expression
2906        return self.func(
2907            self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions, normalize=not is_qualified
2908        )
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2910    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2911        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2912        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2914    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2915        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2916        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2917        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2918        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2920    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2921        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2923    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2924        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2925        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2926        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str:
2928    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2929        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2930
2931        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2932        literal_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Literal)
2933
2934        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2935            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2936        elif not identifier_alias and literal_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2937            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2938
2939        return self.alias_sql(expression)
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2941    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2942        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2944    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2945        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2946        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2947        return f"{this} AT {index}"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2949    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2950        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2951        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2952        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2954    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2955        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2956        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2957        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2959    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2960        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2962    def and_sql(
2963        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2964    ) -> str:
2965        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2967    def or_sql(
2968        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2969    ) -> str:
2970        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2972    def xor_sql(
2973        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2974    ) -> str:
2975        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2977    def connector_sql(
2978        self,
2979        expression: exp.Connector,
2980        op: str,
2981        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2982    ) -> str:
2983        if stack is not None:
2984            if expression.expressions:
2985                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2986            else:
2987                stack.append(expression.right)
2988                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2989                    for comment in expression.comments:
2990                        if comment:
2991                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2992                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2993            return op
2994
2995        stack = [expression]
2996        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2997        ops = set()
2998
2999        while stack:
3000            node = stack.pop()
3001            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
3002                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
3003            else:
3004                sql = self.sql(node)
3005                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
3006                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
3007                else:
3008                    sqls.append(sql)
3009
3010        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
3011        return sep.join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3013    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
3014        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3016    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
3017        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3019    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
3020        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3022    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
3023        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3025    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
3026        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3028    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
3029        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3031    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
3032        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
3033        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
3034        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
3035        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
3036        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
3037        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
3038        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
3040    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3041        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3042        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
3044    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3045        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3046            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3047        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
3049    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3050        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
3052    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3053        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3054        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3055        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3056        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3057        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3058        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3060    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3061        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3062        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3063        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3064        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3065        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3066        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3067        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3068        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3069        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3071    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3072        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3073        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3074        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3075        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3076
3077        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3078            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3079
3080        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
3082    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3083        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
3085    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3086        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3087        if chain is not None:
3088            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3089
3090        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
3092    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3093        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3094        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3095        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
3097    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3098        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3099
3100        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3101        if dtype:
3102            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3103            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3104            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3105            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3106            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3107
3108        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3109        if default:
3110            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3111
3112        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3113        if comment:
3114            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3115
3116        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3117        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3118
3119        if not drop and not allow_null:
3120            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3121
3122        if allow_null is not None:
3123            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3124            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3125
3126        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3128    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3129        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3130        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3131            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3132        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3134    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3135        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3136        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3137        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3138        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3139        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
3141    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3142        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3143            # Remove db from tables
3144            expression = expression.transform(
3145                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3146            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3147        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3148        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str:
3150    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3151        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3152        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3153        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3154        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
def alterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSet) -> str:
3156    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3157        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3158        return f"SET {exprs}"
def alter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alter) -> str:
3160    def alter_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3161        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3162
3163        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3164            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3165        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3166            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3167        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3168            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3169        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Query):
3170            actions = "AS " + self.expressions(expression, key="actions")
3171        else:
3172            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3173
3174        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3175        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3176        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3177        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3178        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3179        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3180        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3181        return f"ALTER {kind}{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alter) -> str:
3183    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.Alter) -> str:
3184        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3185            return self.expressions(
3186                expression,
3187                key="actions",
3188                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3189                skip_first=True,
3190            )
3191        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
3193    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3194        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3195        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3196        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
3198    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3199        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
3201    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3202        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3203
3204        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3205            case = exp.case()
3206            for arg in expression.expressions:
3207                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3208            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3209
3210        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3211
3212        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3213        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3214        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3216    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3217        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
3219    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3220        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax) -> str:
3222    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3223        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3224        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3225        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3226        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
3228    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3229        return self.sql(
3230            exp.Cast(
3231                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3232                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3233            )
3234        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
3236    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3237        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3238            return self.func(
3239                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3240            )
3241        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
3243    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3244        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3245
3246        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3247            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3248
3249        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3250            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3251                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3252
3253        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3254            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3255                return self.sql(
3256                    exp.cast(
3257                        l / r,
3258                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3259                    )
3260                )
3261
3262        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
3264    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3265        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
3267    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3268        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
3270    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3271        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
3273    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3274        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3276    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3277        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
3279    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3280        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
3282    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3283        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
3285    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3286        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
3288    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3289        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
3291    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3292        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
3294    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3295        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
3297    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3298        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3299            return self.sql(
3300                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3301            )
3302        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
3304    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3305        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
3307    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3308        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
3310    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3311        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
3313    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3314        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
3316    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3317        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
3319    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3320        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
3322    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3323        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
3325    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3326        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3328    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3329        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3331    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3332        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
3334    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3335        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
3337    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3338        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
3340    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3341        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def try_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Try) -> str:
3343    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3344        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3345            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3346            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3347
3348        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
3350    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3351        this = expression.this
3352        expr = expression.expression
3353
3354        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3355            this, expr = expr, this
3356        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3357            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3358                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3359
3360            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3361
3362        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
3364    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3365        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3366        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3367        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3368        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3369        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3371    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3372        sqls: t.List[str] = []
3373        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
3374        binary_type = type(expression)
3375
3376        while stack:
3377            node = stack.pop()
3378
3379            if type(node) is binary_type:
3380                op_func = node.args.get("operator")
3381                if op_func:
3382                    op = f"OPERATOR({self.sql(op_func)})"
3383
3384                stack.append(node.right)
3385                stack.append(f" {self.maybe_comment(op, comments=node.comments)} ")
3386                stack.append(node.left)
3387            else:
3388                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
3389
3390        return "".join(sqls)
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
3392    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3393        args = []
3394
3395        for key in expression.arg_types:
3396            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3397
3398            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3399                for value in arg_value:
3400                    args.append(value)
3401            elif arg_value is not None:
3402                args.append(arg_value)
3403
3404        if self.normalize_functions:
3405            name = expression.sql_name()
3406        else:
3407            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3408
3409        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')', normalize: bool = True) -> str:
3411    def func(
3412        self,
3413        name: str,
3414        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3415        prefix: str = "(",
3416        suffix: str = ")",
3417        normalize: bool = True,
3418    ) -> str:
3419        name = self.normalize_func(name) if normalize else name
3420        return f"{name}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
3422    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3423        arg_sqls = tuple(
3424            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3425        )
3426        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3427            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3428        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def too_wide(self, args: Iterable) -> bool:
3430    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3431        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
def format_time( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, inverse_time_mapping: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None, inverse_time_trie: Optional[Dict] = None) -> Optional[str]:
3433    def format_time(
3434        self,
3435        expression: exp.Expression,
3436        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3437        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3438    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3439        return format_time(
3440            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3441            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3442            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3443        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '', dynamic: bool = False, new_line: bool = False) -> str:
3445    def expressions(
3446        self,
3447        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3448        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3449        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3450        flat: bool = False,
3451        indent: bool = True,
3452        skip_first: bool = False,
3453        skip_last: bool = False,
3454        sep: str = ", ",
3455        prefix: str = "",
3456        dynamic: bool = False,
3457        new_line: bool = False,
3458    ) -> str:
3459        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3460
3461        if not expressions:
3462            return ""
3463
3464        if flat:
3465            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3466
3467        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3468        result_sqls = []
3469
3470        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3471            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3472            if not sql:
3473                continue
3474
3475            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3476
3477            if self.pretty:
3478                if self.leading_comma:
3479                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3480                else:
3481                    result_sqls.append(
3482                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3483                    )
3484            else:
3485                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3486
3487        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3488            if new_line:
3489                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3490                result_sqls.append("")
3491            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3492        else:
3493            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3494        return (
3495            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3496            if indent
3497            else result_sql
3498        )
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3500    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3501        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3502        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3503        if flat:
3504            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3505        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
3507    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3508        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3509        if not property_name:
3510            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3511        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
3513    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3514        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
3516    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3517        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3519    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3520        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3521        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3522        expressions = (
3523            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3524        )
3525        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
3527    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3528        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3529        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3530        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
3532    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3533        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
3535    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3536        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3537        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3538        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3539        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3540
3541        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3542        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3543            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3544            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3545            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3546            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3547        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3548            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3549                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3550            else:
3551                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3552        else:
3553            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3554        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
3556    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3557        table = expression.this
3558        table_alias = ""
3559
3560        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3561        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3562            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3563            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3564
3565        this = self.sql(table)
3566        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3567        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3568        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3569        sep = self.sep()
3570
3571        return self.prepend_ctes(
3572            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3573        )
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
3575    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3576        if expression.args.get("format"):
3577            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3578
3579        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber) -> str:
3581    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3582        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3583            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3584            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3585
3586        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3587        if not fmt:
3588            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3589            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3590
3591        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
3593    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3594        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3595        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3596        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3597        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3598        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
3600    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3601        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3602        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3603        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3604        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3606    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3607        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
3609    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3610        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3612    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3613        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3614        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3615        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3616        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3617        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
3619    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3620        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3621        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3622
3623        if having:
3624            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3625
3626        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
3628    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3629        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3630        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3631        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3632        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3633        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3634        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3635        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3636        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3637        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3638        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3639        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3640        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3641        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3643    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3644        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3645        if key_block_size:
3646            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3647
3648        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3649        if using:
3650            return f"USING {using}"
3651
3652        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3653        if parser:
3654            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3655
3656        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3657        if comment:
3658            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3659
3660        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3661        if visible is not None:
3662            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3663
3664        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3665        if engine_attr:
3666            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3667
3668        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3669        if secondary_engine_attr:
3670            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3671
3672        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3673        return ""
def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3675    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3676        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3677        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3679    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3680        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3681        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3682        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3683        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3684        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3685        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3686        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3687        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3688        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3689        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3690        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3692    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3693        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3694            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3695
3696        case = exp.Case().when(
3697            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3698            expression.args["true"],
3699            copy=False,
3700        )
3701        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3702        if else_cond:
3703            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3704
3705        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3707    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3708        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3709        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3710        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3711        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3712        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3713        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3715    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3716        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3718    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3719        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3721    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3722        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3723        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3724        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3725        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3726        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3727        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3729    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3730        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3731        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3732        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3734    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3735        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3736        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3737        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str:
3739    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3740        arg = expression.this
3741        if not arg.type:
3742            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3743
3744            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3745
3746        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3747            return self.sql(arg)
3748
3749        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3750        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3752    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3753        this = expression.this
3754        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3755            return self.sql(this)
3756
3757        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3759    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3760        this = expression.this
3761        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3762            return self.sql(this)
3763
3764        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3766    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3767        this = expression.this
3768        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3769
3770        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3771            return self.sql(
3772                exp.cast(
3773                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3774                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3775                )
3776            )
3777
3778        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3779            return self.sql(this)
3780
3781        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str:
3783    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3784        return self.sql(
3785            exp.func(
3786                "DATEDIFF",
3787                expression.this,
3788                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3789                "day",
3790            )
3791        )
def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str:
3793    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3794        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3795            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3796
3797        unit = expression.text("unit")
3798        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3799            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3800
3801        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
def dateadd_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd) -> str:
3803    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3804        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3805
3806        return self.func(
3807            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3808        )
def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny) -> str:
3810    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3811        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3812            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3813            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3814            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3815            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3816
3817        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3818
3819        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3820        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3821            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3822
3823        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct) -> str:
3825    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3826        expression.set(
3827            "expressions",
3828            [
3829                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3830                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3831                else e
3832                for e in expression.expressions
3833            ],
3834        )
3835
3836        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange) -> str:
3838    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3839        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3840        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3841
3842        return f"{low} TO {high}"
def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable) -> str:
3844    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3845        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3846        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3847
3848        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3849
3850        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3851        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3852
3853        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3854        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3855
3856        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3857        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3858
3859        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3860        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3861
3862        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert) -> str:
3866    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3867        to = expression.this
3868        value = expression.expression
3869        style = expression.args.get("style")
3870        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3871        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3872
3873        if not to or not value:
3874            return ""
3875
3876        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3877        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3878            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3879
3880        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3881        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3882
3883        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3884        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3885            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3886
3887            style_value = style.name
3888            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3889            if not converted_style:
3890                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3891
3892            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3893
3894            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3895                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3896            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3897                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3898            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3899                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3900            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3901                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3902
3903        if not transformed:
3904            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3905
3906        return self.sql(transformed)
def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CopyParameter) -> str:
3962    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3963        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3964
3965        if expression.expressions:
3966            upper = option.upper()
3967
3968            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3969            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3970
3971            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3972            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3973            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3974            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3975
3976        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3977
3978        if not value:
3979            return option
3980
3981        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3982
3983        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
def credentials_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Credentials) -> str:
3985    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3986        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3987        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3988            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3989            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3990            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3991        else:
3992            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3993            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3994            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3995
3996        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3997        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3998
3999        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
4000        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
4001
4002        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
4003        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
4004
4005        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
4006        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
4007
4008        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
def copy_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Copy) -> str:
4010    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
4011        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4012        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
4013
4014        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
4015        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
4016        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
4017        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
4018
4019        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
4020        params = self.expressions(
4021            expression,
4022            key="params",
4023            sep=sep,
4024            new_line=True,
4025            skip_last=True,
4026            skip_first=True,
4027            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
4028        )
4029
4030        if params:
4031            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
4032                params = f" WITH ({params})"
4033            elif not self.pretty:
4034                params = f" {params}"
4035
4036        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
def semicolon_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Semicolon) -> str:
4038    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
4039        return ""
def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4041    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
4042        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
4043        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
4044        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
4045        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
4046        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
4047
4048        if filter_col or retention_period:
4049            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
4050
4051        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint) -> str:
4053    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
4054        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
4055    ) -> str:
4056        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4057        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4058        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4059        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
def gapfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GapFill) -> str:
4061    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4062        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4063        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4064        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4066    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4067        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4069    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4070        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4071        expr = expression.expression
4072
4073        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4074            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4075            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4076        else:
4077            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4078
4079        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
def parsejson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ParseJSON) -> str:
4081    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4082        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4083            return self.sql(expression.this)
4084
4085        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
def rand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rand) -> str:
4087    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4088        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4089        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4090
4091        if lower and upper:
4092            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4093        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
def changes_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Changes) -> str:
4095    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4096        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4097        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4098        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4099        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4100        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4101        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4102
4103        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
def pad_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pad) -> str:
4105    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4106        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4107
4108        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4109        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4110            fill_pattern = "' '"
4111
4112        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
def summarize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Summarize) -> str:
4114    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4115        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4116        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4118    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4119        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4120
4121        parent = expression.parent
4122        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4123            parent = parent.parent
4124
4125        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4126            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4127
4128        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4129            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4130
4131        return self.sql(generate_series)
def arrayconcat_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayConcat, name: str = 'ARRAY_CONCAT') -> str:
4133    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4134        exprs = expression.expressions
4135        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4136            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4137        else:
4138            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4139
4140        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4142    def converttimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.ConvertTimezone) -> str:
4143        if self.SUPPORTS_CONVERT_TIMEZONE:
4144            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
4145
4146        source_tz = expression.args.get("source_tz")
4147        target_tz = expression.args.get("target_tz")
4148        timestamp = expression.args.get("timestamp")
4149
4150        if source_tz and timestamp:
4151            timestamp = exp.AtTimeZone(
4152                this=exp.cast(timestamp, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPNTZ), zone=source_tz
4153            )
4154
4155        expr = exp.AtTimeZone(this=timestamp, zone=target_tz)
4156
4157        return self.sql(expr)
def json_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSON) -> str:
4159    def json_sql(self, expression: exp.JSON) -> str:
4160        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4161        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
4162
4163        _with = expression.args.get("with")
4164
4165        if _with is None:
4166            with_sql = ""
4167        elif not _with:
4168            with_sql = " WITHOUT"
4169        else:
4170            with_sql = " WITH"
4171
4172        unique_sql = " UNIQUE KEYS" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
4173
4174        return f"JSON{this}{with_sql}{unique_sql}"
def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONValue) -> str:
4176    def jsonvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONValue) -> str:
4177        def _generate_on_options(arg: t.Any) -> str:
4178            return arg if isinstance(arg, str) else f"DEFAULT {self.sql(arg)}"
4179
4180        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
4181        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
4182        returning = f" RETURNING {returning}" if returning else ""
4183
4184        on_empty = expression.args.get("on_empty")
4185        on_empty = f" {_generate_on_options(on_empty)} ON EMPTY" if on_empty else ""
4186
4187        on_error = expression.args.get("on_error")
4188        on_error = f" {_generate_on_options(on_error)} ON ERROR" if on_error else ""
4189
4190        return self.func("JSON_VALUE", expression.this, f"{path}{returning}{on_empty}{on_error}")